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PSYCH 2010- EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE
Structuralism – breaking up the “conscious experience” into basic elements, and studying how these elements were related (sensation, feeling, images)
Functionalism- psychology should investigate the function of the conscious experience instead of the structure; what does it do?
William James-
- “consciousness is a continuous flow of thoughts” – stream of consciousness
- Lead the functionalist
Sigmund Freud- psychoanalytic perspective
- The unconscious = thoughts, memories, desires that people are not actively thinking about, but have a great influence on behavior
John B. Watson-
- “forget about consciousness/unconsciousness”
- introduces Behaviorism – scientific psychology should study only the behavior on the outside If you want to learn more check out What are cells found in clusters called?
- Because we can’t physically see conscious decision making, we can only make 100% accurate statements on outside behavior; VERIFIABILITY
- He took an extreme stance on Nature vs. Nurture; He was on team Nurture
- Nature vs. nurture- is behavior determined by genetics (Nature) or environment and experience (Nurture)
B. F. Skinner- No one has control over what they do - “human behavior is no freer than digestion”
- Free will is an illusion
- he knew mental events happened, but found them useless because we couldn’t scientifically study them
Fundamental principle of behavior- people will repeat behavior that leads to good outcomes, and will avoid behavior that leads to negative outcomes
Carl Rogers & Abraham Maslow- Humanism approach
Humanism- Theory emphasizing the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and potential for personal growth
- optimistic view of human nature
Clinical psychology- concerned with diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders We also discuss several other topics like Who are the twin sons or mars?
Cognition- mental processes when acquiring knowledge
Cognitive perspective- mental processes influence how we behave
- focusing only on the outside behavior doesn’t give us a full picture of why we behave like we do
Biological perspective- you can explain human behavior because of their bodily processes and chemical processes
Evolutionary psychology- examines behavioral processes in terms of their adaptive value for members of a species over the course of many generations
Positive psychology movement- to better understand positive aspects of human existence (resilience, adapting, positive attitudes)
Modern definition of psychology- The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie behavior, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems
7 unifying themes of psychology
1) psychology is empirical
- conclusions are based on direct observation 2) psychology is theoretically diverse
- seek to explain why the (direct observations) happen 3) psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context 4) behavior is determined by multiple causes 5) behavior is shaped by cultural heritage
6) heredity and environment jointly influence behavior - nature AND nurture
7) people’s experience of the world is highly subjective - your individual reality is different than others, so you experience things differently, even if you’re in the same situationIf you want to learn more check out Who painted the mona lisa?
Chapter 2 Study Guide
Scientific approach- assumes events are governed by some lawful order Goals of the scientific enterprise
-- Measurement and description- create some system of measurement for behavior studies
(ex. How to measure if men are more sociable than women) Don't forget about the age old question of What is lincoln’s ten percent plan?
If you want to learn more check out Who wrote the poem “lady lazarus”?
-- Understanding and prediction- to understand something is to explain why it occurs
-- Application and control- goal is to gather practical information that add value and can help solve problems
Hypothesis- uncertain statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables
Theory- a bunch of related ideas that try to explain something observable
Operational definition- describes actions that will be used to measure/control a variable
Participants- people/animals whose behavior is systematically observed in a study Data collection techniques in psychology
-- Direct observation- observers trained to watch and record behaviors as objectively and precisely as possible. They may use some instruments (stopwatch, video recorder)
-- Questionnaire
-- Interview
-- Psychological test
-- Physiological recording
-- Archival records
Journal- periodical that publishes technical & scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry
Peer review process: see figure 2.3, page 35
Research methods- different approaches to to observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies If you want to learn more check out How many principles economics have?
Experiment- research method; manipulates a variable under controlled conditions and observes whether any change occurs in second variable
Independent variable- what the experimenter varies in order to see an impact on other variable
Dependent variable- affected by the experiment, being observed
Experimental group- subjects who receive some special treatment in an experiment, they are administered the Independent variable
Control group- not given the independent variable
Extraneous variables (also known as third variables)- other variables that are likely to influence results
Confounding- two variables are linked very closely, so it’s hard to tell which effects come from which variable
Random assignment- all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or set of conditions
Correlation (positive and negative)- exists when two variables are related (see figure 2.7, page 41)
Correlation coefficient- numerical index of the degree of relationship between 2 variables
Naturalistic observation- researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with subjects
Reactivity- when subject’s behavior is probably altered by an observer Case studies- really in depth study on one subject
Surveys- researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of particular participants’ backgrounds, attitudes, beliefs, or behavior
Replication- repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results are duplicated
Meta-analysis- combines the statistical results of many studies of the same question, yielding an estimate of the size and consistency of the variables effects
Sampling bias- when a sample is not representative of the population from which it was drawn
Placebo effects- participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive fake treatment
Distortions in self-report data
Experimenter bias- tendency for experimenters to be bias by their own expectations
Double-blind procedure- neither the subjects or observers know who has been assigned to the experimental group
Deception in psychological research: controversial topic between psychologists. Some researchers create fake situations in order to observe behavior, such as robbery, fights, etc.
Ethical principles in psychological research – research with humans: -- Must be voluntary
-- Must not be harmful or dangerous
-- Studies involving deception must include debriefing
-- Right to privacy must be protected
check the study guide he gave us for charts and images you should consult
Chapter 3 Study Guide
Key terms – these are roughly in the order in which they appear in the chapter. Neuron- specialized cell sending out nerve impulses
Soma- body of the cell
Dendrites- receives signals from other cells
Axon- sends signals to other cells
Myelin sheath- insulating material that encases some axons
Terminal buttons- small knobs that secrete chemicals called neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters- the messengers that activate neighboring neurons Synapse- the space where information is sent from one neuron to another
Glia- cells found all around the nervous system that provide many types of support for neurons
Resting potential- stable, negative charge while the cell is inactive
Action potential- brief shift in the electrical charge of a neuron that travels along an axon
All-or-none-law- a neuron cannot half fire an impulse; it sends, or it doesn’t Think of this: You can’t halfway fire a gun
Synaptic cleft: microscopic gap between neurons
Presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron:
Pre-synaptic neuron- neuron that is sending signal across the gap Post-synaptic neuron- neuron that receives the signal
Postsynaptic potential- voltage change at a receptor site on a postsynaptic cell membrane
Peripheral nervous system-consists of the nerves and ganglia on the outside of the brain and spinal cord.
-- Somatic nervous system- ‘Soma’ meaning body; nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles (chewing, walking, clapping)
-- Afferent nerve fibers- axons that carry information inward, from the periphery of the body to the central nervous system
-- Efferent nerve fibers- axons that carry information outward, from the central nervous system to periphery
-- Autonomic nervous system- ‘Auto’; running by itself; involuntary functions (blinking, breathing, heat beating)
-- Sympathetic- arousal; fight or flight, gets the body working – mobilizes body’s resources for emergencies
-- Parasympathetic divisions- ‘brake system’; calms body down after arousal, balances electric charge- conserves bodily resources
Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord
-- Spinal cord- connects brain to the rest of body through peripheral nervous system; from base of brain to just below waist
-- Brain- in skull, main part of central nervous system; coordinates body’s actions, enable people to talk & think
Hindbrain: parts listed below, lower part of brainstem
-- Cerebellum- “little brain”, adjacent to back surface of the brainstem: coordination of movement, equilibrium
-- Medulla- attaches to spinal cord, largely unconscious; controls breathing, circulation, etc.
-- Pons- bridge of fibers connecting cerebellum to brainstem; cell clusters dealing with sleep and arousal
Midbrain: between hindbrain and forebrain
-- Reticular formation- regulation in sleep and waking up
Forebrain: largest and most complex
-- Thalamus- handles incoming and outgoing signals; relay center for cortex
-- Hypothalamus- regulating basic human needs (hunger, temperature, thirst)
-- Limbic system- several structures, not very well defined; some pleasure centers
-- Hippocampus- learning and memory
-- Amygdala- emotion and aggression
-- Cerebrum and cerebral cortex
-- Cerebral hemispheres- two sides of brain, eft and right;
-- Corpus callosum- collection of fibers that attach the cerebral hemispheres together
-- Occipital lobe- eyesight
-- Parietal lobe- sensations
-- Temporal lobe- auditory, hearing
-- Frontal lobe- voluntary movements
-- Prefrontal cortex- huge part of brain, still not fully
understood
Mirror neurons – neurons activated when seeing a human performing a task, or preforming one yourself
Brain plasticity- the brain isn’t set in stone; experiences can sculpt features in the brain
Neurogenesis- creation of new neurons
Split-brain surgery- cutting corpus callosum to reduce severity in epileptic seizures
Hemispheric specialization- tasks and actions that are designated to one side of the brain (ex. Language is left brain)
Endocrine system- glands that release chemicals into body/bloodstream to help control bodily functioning
Hormones- the chemical substances that the glands release
Chromosomes- threadlike strands of DNA molecules that carry genetic information DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
Genes- DNA segments that are the key to hereditary transmission
Family studies- researcher’s asses hereditary influence by examining blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on a specific trait
Twin studies- researcher’s asses hereditary influence by comparing a trait shared by identical twins, or fraternal twins
Adoption studies- researcher’s asses hereditary influence by examining the resemblance between an adopted child and their adoptive parents and biological parents
Epigenetics- study of heritable changes in gene expression that do not involve modifications to the DNA sequence
Evolutionary fitness- reproductive success of an individual organism compared to the reproductive success of the other organisms in that population
Natural selection- hereditary traits that give organisms a “1 up” advantage in survival and reproduction, are more likely to be passed on to later generations, making them a “selected trait”
Adaptation- inherited characteristic that increased in a population (through natural selection) because it helped solve a problem of survival or reproduction
Behavioral adaptations- adaptations made to behavior patterns to help organisms survive and successfully reproduce