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MCB2000 Exam Four Lecture Notes
Agents Used to Treat Fungal Infections
Selective toxicity where are the weakest parts of the bacteria/organism to attack
Cell wall is made of peptidoglycan, humans don’t have that, very good target, Penicillin based antibiotics do this
Protein Synthesis translation, good target, both use ribosomes, Human ribosomes are different, Eukaryotic Ribosome is different that Prokaryotic, good target as well
Metabolic Activities both perform Krebs cycle, Glycolsis, electron transport system, shared, antimetabolites compounds given to the patient that don’t harm the host
Folic acid required to make DNA and RNA, everyone must use one way or another, Human bodies don't make this, we get it from the outside, Bacteria make their own folic acid good to target
Don't forget about the age old question of What role do aminoacyl trna synthetases play in translation?
sulfur drugs target metabolic activities
DNA/RNA molecules transcription, replication, making DNA and making RNA, drugs against this replication
Cell Membrane fungi have some differences from other Eukaryotes, cannot use penicillin against them, don’t have a cell wall made of peptidoglycan, good target against Fungi Ergosterol Azoles synthesis of Ergosterol, Polyenes target the structure of Estergol, Amphotericin B most common antifungal Drug
Actions of Antiviral Drugs We also discuss several other topics like What is competitive exclusion?
Obligate Intracellular Pathogens go inside cell, take over, use their machinery More difficulty with viruses than anything else
Try to treat symptoms, Supportive Therapy doesn't cure the disease itself Prevent penetration and entry into the host, need to understand the receptor Stop the uncoding good target
Targeting the release of Nucleic Acid inside the host
Prevent the Virus from Assembly:
HIV infection RNA virus must be converted into DNA get into the host chromosome
The enzymes RT takes RNA and makes DNA out of it, only Retroviruses have this (HIV), RT is a great Target, Drug called RT Inhibiter prevents Enzyme from doing its job
Tamiflu block the entry of the Virus by interfering with the fusion of the virus with the cell membrane of the host, stop the release of the virus from getting out and spreading, prophylaxis of the Flu
Structure Analong looks like the nucleotides but doesn't function properly, against herpesvirus
Riboviron hemorrhagic fever, against Hep
RT inhibitors most famous is AZT
Drug of choice against reverse transcriptase, against HIV is protease inhibiters, second drug against HIV, protease is an enzyme, prohibits the virus from packaging the protein and making more viruses, prevent the virus from synthesizing its nucleic acid We also discuss several other topics like What is temporal discounting?
Not a lot of choices of treatments against viruses
Mechanisms of Drug Resistance
B Lactam Ring Penicillin based antibiotics
possible to pump the drug out, change the target from getting in, modify the drug, bypass your pathway and go through a detour
goal is to not let the drug effect your processes by prohibiting the drug from binding, having it pave another road, stopping it from the blocked pathway
when you take antibiotics your immune system relies on the Normal Flora microbial antagonism, your bacteria prevents other bacteria from establishing residence in your body, they cover up your processes (sexual organs, intestines, skin, colon)
taking antibiotics decreases your normal flora, if you discontinue it your body will replenish and repopulate it
some food comes with some bacteria that helps you repopulate Probiotics, yogurt
antimicrobial agents don’t work for all diseases because not all diseases are caused by microbes We also discuss several other topics like What is the marginal propensity to consume (mpc)?
Chemotherapeutics refers to all chemicals you take to protect you against all types of diseases, heart medicine, blood pressure medicine, help with your own physiology If you want to learn more check out What are the differences in muscle fiber type
?
antibiotics chemicals against bacterial
antimicrobials against all microbes that cause infection
MIC minimum inhibitory concentration, lowest amount of drug that kills or stops microbes from growing, needed for drug companies to decide how much the want you take and how many times a day the regimen, less than MICmore than MIC neither will work
Immune System
designed to protect against all things coming at us
a network of vessels that run around the whole body
made of cells, organs, supporting molecules
Lymphatic system location of immune system, sucks all free liquid back into the system, collects the free liquid around the body, “storm drain”, organs, tissues, vessels
lymphocytes NK, part of innate and acquired immunity We also discuss several other topics like What is hubble’s law all about?
phagocytes phagocytic cells, part of immune system, they have an organ inside called lysosome (small organelle), inside you find hydrolytic enzymes (kill bacteria proteaselysozyme), harsh chemicals in it (oxidizing agentsperoxides) can damage the bacteria or fungi, bind to infections and bring bacteria in phagosome fuses with lysosome, exposes bacteria to the chemicals and it alienates and dissolves the bacteria, spits it out
that process ^ happens with dead cells and other small microbes that enter the body mast cells basophils, inflammatory response cells like allergy
elephant foot disease where lymphatic tissue is blocked so the free liquid is not circulating back, the body swells and makes more skin to compensate, keeps growing and becomes twicethree times the size, inability to recycle/collect the liquid
microbes attack us, compounds from outside come in, our own cells can become cancerous, cuts and bruises
divide the host immune system into components
Innate: nonspecific (doesn’t care if the infection is bacterial, viral, what type of either, it provides protection non specifically), components include dividing into lines of defense first and second, born with this, responds always the same wayfever inflammation
First line of defense skin, mucous membrane, surface protection, enzymes, molecules
Second line of defense phagocytosis, physically eat and remove the infection, inflammation, pain, swelling, redness, warm touch, fever….
: complement proteins always present in the bloodinactive fromwhen infection enters they become activated complement fixationactivated, membrane attack complex MAC, pokes a hole onto the bacteria, leaks lysis killed , opsonization coating the bacteria labeling it with bacteria, attack phagocytic cells,
Acquired: specific (looks to see what type of infection viral? then what type hepatitis?), these components develop over time if you never get exposed to flu virus you will never develop protection against it, Third layer
Third layer/line of defense cells and supporting molecules as well, main B cells and T cells
There is cooperation between the Innate and the Acquired immune systems, always need the firstsecondthird line of defenses against infections, there is separate work for each one but there is also overlap for each of them
Anatomical Defenses:
Skin low pH, sweat, lysozyme enzyme that kills bacteria, salt, normal flora that prevents other bacteria from establishing an infection
Saliva and Tears
Stomach acidity
Intestinal Enzymes bile salts, kill bacteria
Kidney steril
Bladder contains some bacteria, urinating gets rid of bacteria holding your bladder is not good can cause bacteria to travel up and cause kidney infection
Cilia short appendages, cover trachea, can become inactivated by viral infection makes you prone to secondary bacterial infection
Upper Respiratory job to trap particles before they reach the lung
Lymph nodes under armpits, neck area, groin, midsection, liquid pass through these and detect infection
Blood Components
all blood components come from the Bone Marrow
Stem Cells raw molecule or dough that can be shaped into anything you want, can make red/white/platelets
all blood components come from bone marrow, stem cells in bone marrow, all components that run the blood come from bone marrow red, white, platelets
platelets involved in blood clot, prevents you from bleeding to death, can leave blood and come out in the open, free liquid
red blood cells erythrocytes, carry oxygen around, leaves heart and comes back, circulation process, remain in the blood
white blood cells leukocytes, involved in the immune system, free liquid Myloid some turn into erythrocytes
Cytokines
proteins produced by the immune system cells, used for attacking bacteria, communication, activating each other
trigger the other cells to differentiate and multiply
Interferons important against viruses
produce TNF important regarding cancer cells, destroy and kill other cells
inflammatory mediators not cytokines, but are chemicals that stimulate and cause inflammation, degranulate mast cellseosinophilsbasophils see infection and release granules that are inflammatory, EX: histamine, serotonin, result in typical allergic reaction
Inflammation
result of body producing inflammatory compound
results in redness, swelling, heat, pain
all of this happens on the site of injury or infection
Acute quick to develop, heals quickly, beneficial, very good
Chronic slow, low grade, damaging, lasts long
remove infection right away to prevent chronic inflammation
non specific event, part of innate immunity, reacts the same way no matter what brings recruitment of phagocytic cells, attracts them to the area, fights infection
Vasodilation cell becomes more porous and passes by phagocytic cells, leave and get out into the open
Neutrophils major phagocytic cells for bacteria , agent bacteria
Interferon fight against viruses, one cell is infected with the virus, fights against and kills the RNA of the incoming viruses
all components of bacteria can act like an antigen, triggers and activates size restriction to antigens, antigen must be big enough
protein most antigenic
B Cells T cells are part of bone marrow
T cells have to mature in the Thymus and then go to the lymph nodes has to be processed
APC a cell that recognizes the antigen. processes it, and then presents it to T Cells, EX: B cells, dendritic cells, macrophages
plasma cells produce antibodies to fight infection
TB become memory cells, when hepatitis comes back it binds better the second time Both originated from bone marrow, but t cells mature in bone marrow Specific, B cells has antibodies on there surface, T cells have TCR on the surface. plasma cells neutralize toxins and complete fixation.
T cells are involved in a process called CMI
B cells are involved in a process called AMI
There are three APC’s dendritic cells, b cells and macrophage, their job is to process the infection.
APC presents the antigen to T helper cells. and releases cytokines antibodies are proteins produced by plasma cells.
theres an antibody for every infection
Opsonization cutting the bacteria with the infection
agglutination imobilizes bateria
another consequence of antibodies immunity complex formation is complement fixation
when you neutralize a virus you inactivate them
Characteristics of the Immunoglobulin Classes
proteins made and secreted by activated B cells called Plasma cells
antibodies are made of proteins, they are soluble, they float around, they don't last a while, they float around and then turn over and die and new ones are created
every AB is made of 4 pieces polypeptide proteins (2 heavy chains identical), (2 light chains identical)
FAB part of AB that binds to the AG, bottom part is FC
every AB can bind to 2 AG at the same time
5 classes that are different in their FAB portion, FAB recognizes each section individually, if they recognize the same than they are the same FAB
IGG abundant in the blood, passes through the placenta and protects Fetus from infection
IGA abundant in secretionssalivabody fluid
IGM after first infection, made of 5 AB binds together
IGE involved in allergies and recognizes allergens
Primary Response first ever exposure to an infection, IGM shows up predominant antibody slow to develop doesn't last very long low level response
Secondary Response anytime after the first time, develops quickly, higher Titer higher response, higher antibody, lasts longer
Vaccines weak forms of the disease to mimic the primary response, they tell your body you have the infection so that the second time it happens your body detects it already and you wont have any problems
Hyposensitivities
Primary Immunodeficiency
Secondary Immunodeficiency
Hypersensitivities
Type 1: immediate type, food allergy, pet dandruff, IGM, EX: asthma, hay fever, can be systemic as well as localized, degranulate mast, basophils, create histamines
Type 2: react to red blood cells of someone else, IGG, EX: autoimmune disease
Type 3: AG/AB deposited someplace in the body, inflammation, complex mediated, EX: serum sickness, arthritis, lupus
Type 4: delayed time, poison ivy, TB tests, T cells, reaction to grafts
different drugs that prevent the deagulination CA, amP, don't allow the histamine to hit the target
Mother = RH, baby = + RH, wont affect first child but will effect the memory of the seance
TB inject proteins from a type of mycobacteria, body creates CMI, takes 487 hours, results in a red bump that is measured
MHC1 different, react to it, graft
Bone Marrow recognize different
graft vs. host only in bone marrow transfer, complication of transport, donor stuff attacks recipient stuff
MHC if need of organ, check your blood, put on list
Autoimmune Diseases
affects women more than men
usually develops later in life
Clonal anergy destroy B and T cells against yourself early in life, your safe but if they come back and are activated again it is not good, this can be because of infection or drugs
chemicals can result in this too
LUPUS: body ache all over
Rheumatoid arthritis produce antibodies against your own body graves disease against thyroid
HSV8 herpes simplex virus, skin reaction
Myasthenia Graves neurotransmitters are blocked, message doesn't reach th muscle, causes problems, type of paralysis
Categories of Immunodeficiency with Selected Examples missing B cells, T cells, phagocytic cells, complement proteins
result in less than perfect immune system
Agammaglobullernia no B cells, primary, born with it
Bi George syndrome
Secondary develops later in life malnutrition, diseases like HIV, stress
immunosuppressive drugs make you weak, steroids result in this too removal of spleen
Serology
pregnancy testing produces a protein that isn't normally available, not very much false positives
Acquired Immunity AMI, CMI, specificity, antigen is recognized by antibody, one antibody fro every antigen
when bacteria enters, there are antibodies that fight against every aspect of the cells (pili, capsule, cell wall)
Serology studies the interaction between antigen and antibody
: AG/AB results in complement fixation, neutralization, agglutinate, opsonizate, precipitate
: In Vitro in the lab
: In Vivo in the human body
Indirectly
looking for the presence of an unknown antibody, Detect programs of M, indirect detect the AB made in response
Immunologic Methods Testing
Flourisone antibody test: uses a microscope to detect, fluorescent dye, detected under UV light, good identification technique
ELISA: make a plate with 96 holes, put diff amounts of AG/AB on the plate, they interact, enzyme attaches to the antibody, adding substrate causes the color to differ, this is a colorimetric test based on the development of color because of the action of the enzyme, more color more enzyme more antibody present, used to detect the presence of infection agent measles, direct technique to detect the presence of a pathogen, Indirect detects presence of antibody produced by the agent against an infection, measures Titer amount as well how much virus? how much antibody produced?
Flow Cytometry: machine that measures cells, tells you how many you have, attaches different antibodies to cells, the machine separates and measures them
Monoclomal Antibody: population of antibody that are recognized to only one Antigen, for HIV, Hepatitis, Chicken pox, labs can go purchase this, produced by taking HIV virus injecting an animal mouse produces antibody against the HIV kill the animal take the spleen spleen provides B cells that produced the Antibody that was looked for fused with Cancer cells make a hybridome (mix of animal cell and cancer cell) produces antibody that never dies
Applied and Environmental Microbiology
only a fraction of microbes cause disease
microbes are the first one to appear
without microbes life is impossible to maintain
microbes can take CO2 and fix it, N2 and fix it or release it
essential for modifying, degrading, and producing
add carbon to the soil, clean up dead organic material
extract minerals from Ores, mining
bottom of the food chain for marine and water
play a major role in carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur cycle
CO2 and CH4 combination contributes to Global Warming
microbes can be autotrophs, phototrophs, methanogens, methanotrophs can fix methane gas, produce it, control it
we are protected from the UV light by the Ozone
Global Warming infrared, H4, CO2, too much CO2 and Methane more heat stays with us and increases the temperature
Carbon organic, methane, CO2
denitrification worst enemy of farmers, remove nitrogen from the soil, remove the fertilizer
cows graze all day and produce methane
Raw Sewage
mixture of organic and inorganics
goal is to remove these excess organics before releasing the water back, microbes ar involved in removing the organic portion
sewage goes through Three Treatments
Primary separation of solids form liquids, no microbes involved
Secondary organics are removed, microbes involved
Tertiary inorganics are removed, no microbes involved
Sludge Digester a lot of organics in here, anaerobic process, placed in big tanks, microbes digest organics and produce methane gas
Archaea helpful to the planet, involved in the sludge digestion process, they are methanogens, burn fumes
organics are associated with the BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) you have to treat the sewage to remove the BOD
Septic Tank
comparable to the primary treatment
dig a hole in backyard, place concrete block, sewage goes into this container, there is a draining field, the access liquid goes into the ground, the solid portion stays in, every few years it is pumped out and taken to the landfill
Drinking Water
requires proper taste, color, oder (chemicals)
Alum technique that removes chemicals
Activated Charcoal removes chemicals
Ozone, UV light, chlorine kills microbes
Ozone needed to kill cysts of parasites
chlorine best way to make water safe that is available now, kills microbes
Applied Fields of Microbiology
Biotechnology allows to produce hormone, growth factors
Food Microbiology fermentation
Applied and Environmental Microbiology remove pollutionbioremediation Industrial mass produce compound
Bioremediation cleanup of biological wastes
Bacterial plastic biodegradable plastic, polymers
Microbial Leaching extracting metals from ore in mining
Bioreporters Biosensors sense chemicals and toxins in the soil Biodegradation of Xenobiotics (purely manmade, chemists made them) Geochemical Recycling converting one form to another, C, N
Coverting Microbes
Denitrification
Nitrogen Fixation converting gas into usable form
Ammonification converting organics into ammonia, later turned to nitrate, break down of organics into ammonia
Extremophiles
Archaea
temperature extremes, pH extremes, acidity, salinity, pressure
Black Smokers found on Sea floor, minerals come out of the vent, no oxygen or organic compound, all is inorganic, no light, super concentrated minerals, bacteria grow around them
LAST MINUTE TEST TIPS AND FINAL NOTES MENTIONED IN LECTURE 4/6
divide content into Antibiotics targets, ex sterilization:killing all life forms, Aespet (2), Immune System (1), Applied and Environmental Studies (3)
Prions hardest ones to kill, they are a piece of infectious protein, acellular, not live, hard to destroy
Endospores resistant to killing, dormant forms of bacteria, different than fungal spores they are not hard to kill
TB agent resistant to chemicals
Overall, gram negatives are harder to kill than gram positives
actions against the cell cell wall, membrane, metabolism, protein synthesis, also Nucleic acid and DNA/RNA
radiation is a physical way to damage the cell, UV light causes Thymmine Diner fuse two T’s together, gamma ray and X ray break the chromosomethe damage is more severe because it is hard to repair
Chemicals and temperature denature proteins, enzymes, denatured molecules lose their function, bacteria dies
Gram Negative are more resistant because they have porins (channels that prevent the chemical from entering the bacteria an additional layer
Selective Toxicity most important factor, means to spare the host and damage the infectious agent, no side effects
Chemotherapeutic Agents chemicals that treat a disease, Antibiotics, Antimicrobial
Who produces antibiotics? produced to kill competition, grow fungi and bacteria in the lab that produce antibodies, they are extracted to be used to kill bacteria
First target of antibiotics is the Cell Wall, they have Beta lactam ring most common example of penicillin is penicillin G, now it is converted into methicillin
bacteria break down the ring where the antibiotics cant work anymore, this is a huge issue with MRSA
fungi have no cell wall like bacteria, peptidoglycan is effected by beta lactam ring
two classes of anti fungal drugs Polyenes and Azoles, they effect ergosterol polyenes effect the function, azoles effect the synthesis
attachment and entry is the most important to consider with viruses
AZT is a drug that prevents the RT that converts the RNA of the virus into DNA, with HIV
lymphatic and blood system are similar except there are no red blood cells in the lymphatic cells
metastasis happens faster when the cancer finds its way into the lymph node most B cells, T cells, macrophages are found in the lymphatic system
Phagocytic cells engulf, eat up the bacteria
Diapedesis technique that white blood cells use to leave the vessels and come out into the open
complement proteins attach to the infection, poke a hole into it, kill it, mark it, opsonization, find the bacteria, cover with protein, accumulate on the surface of the bacteria and open it up, the bacteria loses itself and induces lysis
B cells only produce antibody
T cells don’t produce antibody
proteins have the most antigen
antigen and antibody binding results in complement fixation, opsonization, agglutination, neutralizing
IGG most abundant antibody
IGE contributes to allergies
primary response is lower, made of IGM, wears off quickly
secondary response is made of IGG, lasts longer
Memory cells T & B, remember the infection the second time around, vaccines are used to mimic the primary response so that the body is prepared for the second time around
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