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360 EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE ATTITUDE: the study of how individuals interpret, analyze, remember and use the information about persons and social events object anything that people might hold an attitude toward → Three parts of attitude: 1. Cognitive Beliefs about an object 2. Affective Feelings toward the object classical conditioning, learning thru association a neutral stimulus (NS) paired with a stimulus (US) that naturally produces An emotional response also Mere Exposure 3. Behavioral Behavior toward the object Operant Conditioning These three things can feed into evaluation; These three things can influence attitude independently, BUT you don’t need all three things Implicit attitudes? Attitude that’s involved with yourself; gut reaction UNCONSCIOUS Implicit attitudes develop first Explicit attitudes? More conscious Dual attitudes; when you have both and they are conflicting Reference groups? Shape attitude; tell you where to start example: undergrad student asking grad about whether or not to take a class may change attitude depending on opinion of reference group Do attitudes predict behavior? NO; do not always predict According to Wicker’s study, attitudes are a bad predictor of behavior. BECAUSE you may have an attitude, but may not be inclined to act on it Example: You could have a positive attitude towards birth control (think it’s a good thing), but that does not mean you are on it Mere exposure effect AFFECT being exposed to something causes positive feelings towards it. The more you are exposed, the more you learn to like it Classical conditioning and attitudes AFFECT pressing lever to get foodLearning through association; neutral stimulus paired with stimulus that naturally produces an emotional response subliminal conditioning: occurs in the absence of conscious awareness of the stimuli involved Operant conditioning BEHAVIORAL Reinforcement and punishment can shape attitudes Proprioceptive cues? Posture balance facial expressions Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Belief that does not match up with your behavior Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s attitude Festinger’s Theory Example; john not exercising even though he believes its good for him justifies by saying he is a good person in other ways (see smoking example) ∙ smoking but saying it's ok because you eat healthy and exercise How can cognitive dissonance be reduced? Change attitudes or beliefs cigarettes keep weight down so they are healthy Add consonant thoughtskeeps me slim, but not healthy Reduce the importance of the attitudebehavior discrepancy looking cool is greater than health risks Reduce perceived choice of engaging in behaviorsmoking cigarettes b/c no longer on heroin Make selfaffirmationssmoke, but i am a good person Change the behavior stop smoking Prophecy Fails: you’re more likely to convince yourself you were right for another reason than realize you were wrong; example from lecture: people believed in the end of the world but when it didn’t happen they thought they saved the world Disconfirming a belief makes the belief stronger Self perception theory you developed internal attitude after observing your behavior (how it differs from cog dissonance) Self perception theory claims that people infer their attitudes from observing their own behavior Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning predicts that external incentives shape attitudes differs from cog dissonance b/c it says you would get reward or punishment for some behavior; only alike b/c reward is a potential thing When does dissonance emerge? 1. Insufficient justification doing this behavior that does not match up with beliefs so you tell yourself you must want to do it 2. Free choice doing behavior of own free will, must be because you want to 3. Effort justificationif you work hard at something, you will like it more than if you didn’t work hard for it VIDEOS The Strange Politics of Disgust: What is the relationship between disgust sensitivity and political orientation? ∙ People who were more politically conservative were more easily disgusted ∙ Emotional experiences (Affect) shape our attitudes in powerful ways How Cults Rewire the Brain: What are the effects of thinking in terms of “us” vs. “them?” ∙ It makes anything possible, it's dangerous and this “memetic infection” makes any belief rationalizable o Brain activity could look diff with someone with this type of thinking VIDEO (TED/Loftus): How Reliable is your memory? What are some of the implications of having such fragile memories? ∙ Memories are fragile and not that reliable; people can implant memories in your brain ∙ dangerous because you can become convinced of something that is not true (for example, thinking you saw someone commit a crime when it wasn’t actually them) Why We Need GenderNeutral Bathrooms (TED/Coyote) o Is this persuasive? Why? How does discrimination impact transgender individuals? o Yes it is persuasive, transgenders can't have a safe place to pee. STEREOTYPES, PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION Stereotyping: General BELIEFS about the group as a whole o They are abstract representations about a group, but they aren’t necessarily accurate.o They’re dangerous because they often overpower individual differences. Faster for us to make judgements by using stereotypes Prejudice emotional reaction towards group as a whole.. ATTITUDE Explicit; consciously held attitudes (not necessarily public) Implicit; unconsciously held attitudes IAT implicit association test measures implicit biases or automatic associations between contexts uncovers hidden racial biases. Links positive words to good, neg to bad. Could be negative words to black people, or negative words to fat people. Shows a preference. Shooter task more likely to shoot black unarmed suspect as seen in pic in lecture What distinguishes stereotypes from other schemes? STRONG EMOTIONS Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on group membership; While schemas are concepts that people use to process information Discrimination action toward a group as a whole Intergroup discrimination treating people differently based solely on their group membership Stigma: Attribute that serves to discredit a person Courtesy stigma Ex: drug addict is negatively stigmatized; o if you are friends with a drug addict you are stigmatized too because of association Racism/Sexism/Prejudice Old fashioned racism ∙ Blatant negative stereotypes ∙ Open opposition to racial equality Modern racism: saying that everyone is equal but still having negative emotions and not interacting with other groups Aversive racism: type of modern racism, attitudes towards racial groups that include egalitarian values and negative emotions, causing one to avoid interaction with group members Sexism ambivalent sexism considers both positive and negative attitudes Treating a woman like a princess (still sexist, but not negative)Prejudice: EMOTIONAL reactions toward a group as a whole. ∙ AFFECTIVE ∙ FEELINGS ∙ AN ATTITUDE It is the strong emotions that distinguish 1 schema from a schema about a group Weight prejudice being bias about people because of their weight; thinking obese people are lazy Sexual prejudice harboring prejudice because of sexual orientation Heterosexism praising heterosexuality and looking down on non heteros 4 Social Learning Factors that influence stereotypes/prejudice: 1 conformity to groups 2 learning from parents 3 religion correlation 4 media misrepresentation Faceism is showing just mens face but womens face and body Ingroup bias liking your own group more. ∙ Robber's Cave o Arrived at camp, assigned to random buses o Boys didn’t know each other, they were separated o Expressed cooperation, compeition, then cooperation with superordinate goals. o 3rd week intergroup cooperation If they just hangout together, maybe they would get to know each other Dinner results in a food fight Opportunities to just be together did not work New strategy: superordinate goals Problem that can only be solved together Failure of camp's water supply Truck breaks down, they needed to all push the truck ethnocentrism ∙ is a pattern of increased hostility toward outgroups accompanied by increased loyalty to one's ingroup. ∙ Ingroup bias is the basis for this!minimal intergroup situations ∙ making groups on something small (bus boys camp example) Scapegoat Theory of Prejudice ∙ BLAME other group that is also stigmatized Stereotype threat Stereotype Threat: ∙ The apprehension people feel when performing a task in which their group is stereotyped to lack ability ∙ Ex: a girl in engineering might feel intimidated in class full of men A consequence of stereotype threat could be… ∙ when women tend to perform more poorly on a test when they expect gender differences Realistic Conflict Theory ∙ There is a big threat some whites have that Mexicans will take their jobs in the US ∙ By 2042 minorities will make up the majority of people and whites will be the minority o This is a real threat to some white americans, who also tend to support trump SOCIAL COGNITION Information that we have acquired in the past helps us to understand and interpret the present Key Point: The way we interpret and evaluate new people and events is greatly influenced by what we have learned through ____past experience. Information that we have acquired in the ___past_____ helps us to understand & interpret the ___present___. Explicit cognition awareness Implicit cognition no awareness Why don’t we use all available info about a person when forming impressions? 1. impractical 2. cognitive meissers (not going to spend effort if don’t have to) 3. sometimes its impossibleWe use categorical information to make judgments about other people, objects, and events Social categorization: classification of people into groups based on common attributes (gender, race, religion) o Set of rules that represent what we know about categories of objects or events in general, and are built up from experience ____schemas___________ Schemas tell us what to _________expect______ & what not to ______expect__________ Schemas are mental sets Scripts are general representation of a common event; example from class that we knew she went to a restaurant based on what she described Traits are general personality dispositions that help us to organize information about the behavior of others stereotypes general social categories that we use to categorize people place a person in category, then infer atttributes Exemplar ∙ part of a category o (a robin is an exemplar of the bird category) Prototype ∙ something that fits into your definition of a category perfectly; ∙ most representative member of a group Schemas help organize info, influence what we can remember, help us fill in details/make inferences, influence what info we can attend to, help us to interpret ambiguous info, and can influence how we behave The likelihood that a schema will be used in processing new info is based on: accessibility Factors that influence schema accessibility are situational cues and recently used schemas Priming making a schema temporarily accessible Personal chronic constructs readily accessible schemas Heuristics timesaving mental shortcuts reduce complex judgements to simple rules of thumb Representativeness Heuristic when something is more represented you think it is more common BaseRate ∙ how often something actually happens o ex: car crashes vs plane crash (car crash is more common) BaseRate Fallacy ∙ ignoring the base rate o (hearing about plane crashes more in the media so being more afraid of those, even though a car accident is much more likely) Anchoring and adjustment heuristic tendency to be biased toward initial info that you received when making your judgments Example how many islands in hong kong? If asked more or less than 300 your answer will likely be in 200s vs asked more or less than 5 Availability heuristic making judgements based on easily you can think of info relevant to the judgment; r as third letter vs first letter Mental stimulations are how easily you can stimulate info that supports a finding Hindsight biasoverestimate ability to have forseen outcome..terrorism example “I knew it all along phenomenon” Counterfactual thinking tendency to imagine alternative outcomes of events and evaluate the actual outcome relative to imagined alternatives (example: being angrier that you missed your flight by 5 minutes than by an hour) False Consensus Effect tendency to exaggerate how common your own opinions are of the general population Confirmation Bias tendency to seek info that supports our beliefs while ignoring info that doesnt False Uniqueness Effect underestimating how common one’s own desirable traits are in the general population SelfFulfilling Prophecy Someone’s expectations about a person àleads the person to fulfill said expectations How have AfricanAmericans been portrayed in the media? What about women? What are the consequences of these portrays for stereotyping/prejudice? Faceism ∙ A ratio of more of the face exposed that leads to measure competenceCognitive Factors that influence stereotypes/prejudice: Know them all and know HOW they work! Categorization ∙ Recognizes the role of self in relation to others ∙ Ex: sust com majors vs. other umass majors o Us vs them Principle of Least Effort ∙ Tendency to rely on oversimplified generalizations and to resist information that complicates our categories distinctions Illusory Correlation ∙ A belief that two variables are associated with one another when there is actually little or no relation between them ∙ You makeup this correlation in your head (hence illusion) o a learned association Describe the experiment done by Jane Elliott in an elementary school classroom involving blueeyed and browneyed children was an example of the minimal intergroup paradigm. What activity did we do in class that illustrated the minimal groups paradigm? What did this activity demonstrate? minimal intergroup situation ∙ Dividing individuals up into groups in an arbitrary and meaningless way Outgroup homogeneity effect ∙ Perceptions that the members of an out group are all similar to each other o “All minorities are poor and can't speak english well” o Cross racial recognition: we can recognize members of our own race better than members of another race Social Factors: Again, know them all and how they work to impact stereotypes/prejudice! Social Dominance Theory: ∙ Social groups are organized hierarchically ∙ Dominant group tend to receive a disproportionate amount of society's assets ∙ Subordinate groups receive most of society's liabilities Intergroup Competition: 2nd week intergroup competition o Zero sum games: tug of war One group wins, one group loses In their group they became more tightly connected Across groups they became more hostile against each other o Thought of own in group as brave and strong, and the out group as awful What is a superordinate goal?New strategy in Robber’s Cave: superordinate goals o Problem that can only be solved together o Failure of camp's water supply o Truck breaks down, they needed to all push the truck Personality Factors to explain stereotypes/prejudice: Prejudiced Personality ∙ Hates ALL outgroups Authoritarian Personality ∙ Trait summarized by submissiveness to authority, rigid adherence to conventional values, & prejudice toward outgroups When selfesteem is threatened, individuals express more ingroup bias. Self Regulation o Monitor stereotyped thinking o How? TRY HARDER OR… TAKE THE IAT TEST, BECOME MORE AWARE and CHANGE We skipped over the class notes (p. 37) on this section, but review in textbook (p. 174 177). COGNITIVE DISSONANCE EMERGES WHEN.. ∙ Behavior is performed with min pressure and min justification ∙ The individual is committed to the behavior ∙ “Do this for $1 or you’ll fail the course” o Saying they hated it because there was pressure What are the different approaches on Cognitive Dissonance? 1) Insufficient Justification ∙ People are induced with as little pressure/justification as poss to perform an attitude inconsistent behavior ∙ The action cant be undone ∙ The individual is committed to the behavior ∙ If a plausible reason for the behavior cannot be invented and behavior cannot be changed, attitudes will change so that we are consistent with the behavior 2) Free Choice ∙ When you freely choose to engage in a counterattitudinal behavior, dissonance results 3) Effort Justification ∙ If you work hard at something, you’ll like it more than if you didnt work for it ∙ Sex Discussion Group Experiment (Aronson and Mills 1959)??? PERSUASION What is Persuasion?∙ The process of consciously attempting to change attitudes thru the transmission of a message Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) ∙ The probability that the recipient of a persuasive message will elaborate (carefully analyze and comprehend) the info contained in a msg o Looking @ a doc on a commercial wearing a lab coat telling you their shaving cream is safe for sensitive skin and dermatologist tested So you buy it, you’re persuaded Two routes to processing: 1) Central Route (High Elaboration) Ex: Baby Eagle and Baby Human egg advertisement ∙ High elaboration has longer lasting attitudes 2) Peripheral Route (Low Elaboration) Ex. Trojan Condom advertisement ∙ Persuasion that occurs when people do not think carefully about a communication and instead are influenced by peripheral cues that are irrelevant to the content or quality of the communication Elaboration Influences: 1. Extent to which a msg changes attitudes 2. Persistence of attitude change Elaboration depends on BOTH motivation and ability: ∙ Motivation motivated to process the msg carefully o Personal relevance o Issue involvment: are there consequences for the self? o Need for cognition ∙ Ability: able to process the msg carefully? Can be chronic or situational ∙ Distraction ∙ Intelligence ∙ Message comprehensibility Ex in class: TRS80, an old computer Which route to persuasion lasts longer? Why? ∙ CENTRAL because it has more elaboration KEY POINT: Elaboration depends on BOTH motivation and ability To be an effective persuader consider: WHO says WHAT to WHO by WHAT MEANS? Key Factors that Influence Persuasion: ∙ Credibility: when a msg is attibuted to a highly credible source like Dr. Oz, it will tend to be more persuasive than when its contributed to a less credible source o Two components to credibility:1. Expertise: the abiity to provide accurate info 2.Trustworthiness: the motivation of a source to lie or speak the truth Example: Does Dr. Oz have the motivation to tell us the truth? No, he sells us magic pills for the $ o False credibility Persuader Attractiveness – who is most persuasive? ATTRACTIVE PEOPLE. → Rapid Speech – how does it affect persuasion? ∙ Encourages peripheral processing and hinders central processing How does it influence elaboration? ∙ Can increase OR decrease persuasion èPersuasive Intent o Overhead Messages Hiring actors in bar to pretend they like a new beer o How do these work? People are more pursuaded when they do not think you are trying to persuade them èStatistics vs Personal Examples à Which is more persuasive and why? Personal examples because you can relate emotionally How do Emotions Influence Persuasion? è How do fear appeals work? When do they work? Provide an example. It depends; using stds in condom ads scared people; making condom ads sexy helps them sell President commericial about war scares people but makes them vote for him to feel safe è Does humor influence persuasion? How might it have an effect? Are there limits to the effects? Humor increases attention; can increase persuasion if humor is relevant to message, otherwise it could just distract from message What is better? Onesided or Twosided messages? When should a persuader use each type of message? Depends on whether thep erson knows one or both sides of an issue How does message repetition influence persuasion? ∙ Mere exposure Effect ∙ Wearout effects ∙ Repetition with variation Can subliminal messages/advertising persuade people? Provide two examples of attempts to use subliminal advertising and the effects. Trying to make people relate rats to opponent in political campign; backfired