Description
PSYC 287 Exam 3 Study Guide
∙ Types of Research
o Case Studies: involves a very close examination of a person or event
Advantages
∙ A wellchosen case study can be a source of ideas, sometimes the
method is absolutely necessary
Disadvantages/weaknesses
∙ The degree to which its findings can be generalized as unknown
o Experimental: have to randomly assign to two or more groups; manipulate the factor interested in
Advantages
∙ Gains insight into methods of instruction, researcher can have
control over variables, intuitive practice shaped by research
Disadvantages
∙ Subject to human error, sample may not be representative, human If you want to learn more check out What is the formula for quantifying feedback?
response can be difficult to measure
o Correlational: an associational research study; no experimental groups, everybody is treated the same
Advantages
∙ Allows to collect much more data than experiments, the results
tend to be more applicable to everyday life
Disadvantages/weaknesses
∙ Cannot provide a conclusive reason for a relationship, causation
cannot be determined
∙ Key Research Concepts
o Person vs. Situation Debate
Walter Mischel’s role in debate
∙ Reviewed personality studies & found that correlations between
personality traits & behavior in different situations fell under .30
∙ Caused psychologists to question whether the concept of
personality traits was useful Don't forget about the age old question of What is backward induction in game theory?
Funder’s research responding to debate
∙ Reanalyzed classic social psychology studies
Personality’s influence on situations (strong vs. weak)
∙ Strong situations: situations where nearly all people act the same
way; personality is useless
∙ Weak/ambiguous situations: situations that allow for variations in
behavior; personality is useful
The Personality Coefficient: the .30 from Mischel’s studies is labeled the “personality coefficient”
Contexts in which personality or situational variables are better at
predicting behavior
∙ Personality
o Personality traits influence the situations a person finds
herself in
o Personality traits influence how situations unfold
o Classic interaction: 2 variables in combination have
meaningful effect
∙ Situational
o Situational variables are better at predicting how people act
in an array of situations
Has led to data aggregation
Interactions between personality & situations (moderator variables) ∙ Moderator variable: a 3rd variable that affects the strength of the
relationship between a dependent & independent variable
∙ Need for consistency – higher = greater predictive power of Don't forget about the age old question of What if calf wont drink?
situations
∙ Age – older = greater stability in personality traits
o Reliability: a reliable measure gives you a result you can trust
o Validity: measuring what you intend to measure
o Generalizability: do your measures work on everyone?
o What problems can affect these research concepts and how do researchers address them?
Reliability We also discuss several other topics like What is the energy from wind?
∙ Problems – participant error, experiment error, distractions,
situations & temporary states
∙ Improvements – data aggregation, clear/carefully designed
experimental protocol
Validity
∙ Problems – when something doesn’t measure what it intends to
measure, no validity w/o reliability
∙ Improvements – attempting new tests
Generalizability
∙ Problems – will it continue to apply across time, ethnicity, gender, culture
∙ Improvements – adapt measures to fit different cultures
∙ Key Statistical Concepts
o Factor Analysis Method:
Confirmatory testing: can be used to confirm whether test items fall into hypothesized groups
Exploratory testing: can be used to explore whether test items fall into sensible groups
Advantages – helps with correlation
Disadvantages – harming factors is subjective, sometimes factor structure is difficult to interpret
o Null hypothesis significance testing – the most common method used to determine whether or not scientific results matter We also discuss several other topics like What is the scope of rickety bridge study?
Tells us what % of the time we would find the same relationship between variables
∙ Trait Theory and Personality Judgments
o Big Five personality traits: neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, & openness If you want to learn more check out What is the difference between the core promoter and the regulatory promoter?
o Correlations between big 5 personality traits & behavior/life outcomes Neuroticism: people who score high on this trait tend to deal ineffectively w/ problems in their lives & react more negatively to stressful events
Openness: people scoring high are viewed by others as creative,
imaginative, openminded, & clever
Conscientiousness: organized, dependable, selfdiscipline
Agreeableness: compassionate, cooperative, trusting
Extraversion: positive emotions, assertiveness, sociability
∙ Humanism
o Mihály Csíkszentmihályi’s theory of “flow”: the mental stage of operation in which a person performing an activity is fully immersed in a feeling of energized focus, full involvement, and enjoyment in the process of the activity
o Salvatore Maddi’s theory of hardiness: the coping strategies, attitudes, and beliefs that help people work through the stressors of life
These traits tend to fall into three major categories – challenge, control, and commitment
∙ Personality and Culture
o Emics – thoughts, concepts, feelings, or behaviors that are determined by a culture’s customs and beliefs
o Etics – thoughts, concepts, feelings, or behaviors that are more universally true across cultures
o Ethnocentrism: judging another culture from the point of view of yourself o Outgroup homogeneity bias: the tendency to view an outgroup as homogenous, or as “all the same” whereas the ingroup is seen as more heterogeneous or varied o Cultural relativism: idea that all cultures are valid and should not be judged good or bad
∙ Psychoanalysis (Freud and Later Theorists)
o Identify the basic concepts underlying psychoanalytic theory
Psychic Determinism: the assumption that every that happens in a person’s mind, and therefore everything that a person thinks and does, also has a specific cause
Internal Structure
∙ Id – the repository of the drives, the emotions, and the primitive,
unconscious part of the mind that wants everything now
∙ Ego – the relatively rational part of the mind that balances the
competing claims of the id, the superego, and reality
∙ Superego – the part of the mind that consists of the conscience and the individual’s system of internalized rules of conducts, or
morality
Psychic Conflict and Compromise
∙ Compromise among the different structures of the mind and the many different things the individual wants at the same time – what the individual actually thinks and does is the result of this
compromise
Mental Energy
∙ The apparatus of the mind needs energy to make it go
∙ Libido: mental or psychic energy
o Inferiority complex: an unrealistic feeling of general inadequacy caused by actual or supposed inferiority in one sphere, sometimes marked by aggressive behavior in compensation
o Identification: taking on the values and worldview of another person o Fixation: leaving a disproportionate share of one’s libido behind at an earlier stage of development
o Define and explain Freud’s theory of the structure of the mind and primary process thinking vs. secondary process thinking
Secondary process thinking: the term for rational and conscious processes of ordinary thought
Primary process thinking: the way the unconscious mind operates, and how the infant’s as well as the adult’s id is said to operate
Conscious mind – the part of your mental functioning you can observe when you simply turn your attention inward
∙ Smallest, topmost, and least important layer
Preconscious mind – consists of ideas you are not thinking about at the moment, but that you could bring into conscious easily
Unconscious – those areas and processes of the mind of which a person is not aware
∙ Includes all of the id and superego, and most of the ego
o Identify Anna O
Suffered from symptoms (paralysis) that had no organic medical cause, but could be improved through talking about past traumatic experience o Describe each of Freud’s stages of psychosexual development Oral – birth to 1 ½ years; lips, mouth, tongue; id; theme – dependence Anal – 1 ½ to 3 ½ ; organs of elimination; ego; theme – obedience and selfcontrol
Phallic – 3 ½ to 7; sexual organs; superego; theme – gender identity and sexuality
Latency – 7 through puberty; focus on learning and cognitive development Genital – puberty and so on; find balance between id, ego, and superego; mature expression of sexuality; creativity
o Identify and describe the functioning of each of Freud’s defense mechanisms Denial – functions by causing the person to reject the source of the anxiety Repression – person avoids thinking about source of anxiety and anything that reminds them of the source of the anxiety
Reaction formation – a person will focus on the opposite or forbidden thought that is causing the anxiety
Projection – a person will attribute unwanted thoughts or feelings onto another person (cheater in a relationship thinks partner is cheating) Rationalization – thinks up a justification to allow the id to be in control (victim blaming in sexual assault)
Intellectualization – recharacterizing an unpleasant feeling into a rational thought
Displacement – a person finds a safer outlet for the id’s desires (chewing on gum or a pencil – shifted focus of anxiety)
Sublimation – channel the id’s desires into a positive behavior o Explain Freud’s theory about parapraxes and humor
Failures of defense mechanism to control the source of anxiety leads to voluntary (humor) or involuntary (parapraxes) expressions of the id’s impulse
∙ Parapraxes (involuntary) – saying ex’s name instead of current partner’s name
∙ Humor (voluntary) – an attempt at sublimation
o Describe the goal of and the theory underlying psychoanalytic therapy The therapist and patient must form an emotional bond, called the therapeutic alliance
∙ This alliance gets its power through transference (the tendency to bring ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that developed
toward one important person into a later relationship with a
different person)
o Discuss the criticisms of psychoanalytic theory
Lack of supporting evidence
∙ Used case study methods (didn’t do any experiments) – since theories weren’t developed empirically, can’t test theories
∙ Sexist toward women and homosexuality
o Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology
General theory is that equality is important to prevent psychopathology Organ inferiority – motivation to attain equality with others by compensating for weaknesses
Inferiority complex
Masculine protests – desire to prove masculinity based on dominance Holism (unity of individual) – a future oriented to strive for something Goal orientation – like holism but focuses on selfactualization o Carl Jung – Analytical Psychology
Focus on unconscious mind as source of individual development Theory of Neuron’s
∙ When a complex saps power from the ego, it can cause symptoms of neurosis
∙ Intervention is designed to attempt to make the complex conscious, and thereby reduce its impact
Theory of Collective Unconscious and Archetypes
∙ Archetypes are psychic elements that determine people’s shared psychological pattern (collective unconscious)
∙ Archetypal events – birth, death, separation from family, initiation, marriage
∙ Archetypal motifs – creation, deluge, apocalypse
∙ The self: expression of conscious personality
∙ The shadow: consist of repressed, disavowed qualities of the conscious self
∙ Anima/animus – primordial image of woman in the mind of the man (vice versa)
Synchronicity – events are not merely connected by causality, but also by meaning
Four modes of thinking
∙ Sensation – perception through sense organs
∙ Intuition – perceiving unconscious events
∙ Thinking – intellectual cognition
∙ Feeling – subjective estimation
o Melanie Klein – Object Relations Theory
The psychoanalytic study of interpersonal relations, including the unconscious images and feelings associated with the important people (objects) in a person’s life
Theme 1: every relationship has elements of satisfaction and frustration, or pleasure and pain
Theme 2: the mix of love and hate
Theme 3: the distinction between the parts of the love object and the whole person
Theme 4: the psyche of the baby (and the adult) is aware of & disturbed by these contradictory feelings
Depressive position – wish to worship and protect the good part because they fear losing it
o Describe Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development and define each stage Believed that certain basic conflicts arise at various stages of life Emphasized not the physical focus of the libido, but the conflicts experienced at each stage and their possible outcomes
Stage 1: basic trust versus mistrust
∙ Child learns whether needs and wants will be met, ignored, or over indulged (oral stage)
Stage 2: autonomy versus shame and doubt
∙ Who’s in charge here? (anal stage)
Stage 3: initiative versus guilt
∙ The child beings to anticipate and fantasize about life as an adult
(phallic stage)
Stage 4: industry versus inferiority
∙ The child must begin to control his exuberant imagination and
unfocused energy and get on with tasks of developing competence,
workmanship, and a way of organizing life
Stage 5: identity versus identity confusion
∙ Individuals choose values and goals that are consistent, personally meaningful, and useful
Stage 6: intimacy versus isolation
∙ To find an intimate life partner to share important experiences and further development
Stage 7: generativity versus stagnation
Stage 8: integrity versus stagnation
o Describe attachment theory and the three types of attachment in children A theoretical perspective that draws on psychoanalytic thought to describe the development and importance of human attachments to emotionally significant other people
The child forms the first attachment with the primary caregiver
Working models of others and the self
Anxiousambivalent children come from home situations where their care givers behaviors are “inconsistent, hitormiss, chaotic”
Avoidant children come from homes where they have been rebuffed repeatedly in their attempts to enjoy contact or reassurance
Secure children manage to develop a confident faith in themselves and their care givers
∙ Hypnosis
o Hypnosis is a used tool in the treatment of many mental and physical issues or ailments
A purposely induced trance state not unlike other trance states that we experience naturally
o Franz Anton Mesmer
Mesmer studied theology and law at a Jesuit University
Witnessed “exorcisms” which he interpreted as people reacting to the priest through some invisible force believed priest was delivering healing power to his subjects
Studied Isaac Newton’s theories of gravity and the tidal forces of the planets and the moon theorized those tidal forces would affect the human body
Coined animal magnetism – the magnetism supposedly realigned the magnetic properties of their bodies
∙ This sometimes lead to violent seizures
Concluded there was no proof of its existence
Violent effects were “aroused imagination and mechanical imitation which leads us in spite of ourselves to repeat that which strikes our senses” (how many people describe effects of hypnotism)
o Sirhan Sirhan (assassin to Robert Kennedy)
Practiced selfhypnosis and automatic writing
Dissociative disorder – was abused
o Mark David Chapman (assassin to John Lennon) – demonstrated similar actions to Sirhan
Felt like a nobody, powerless and angry
Abused – developed a dissociative disorder due to the trauma he experienced as a child
Had no stable sense of self in the outer world and his persona changed with his circumstances
When enraged he would reject himself for his opposite
o Dissociative disorder aka personality disorders