Description
Principles of Microeconomics Study Guide – Lectures 21End
To buy machines, each firm must get hold of money:
∙ Borrow money from bank, agree to pay fixed interest
∙ Take money from people and in return these people become coowners (shareholders) *BP Example from Lecture good sample
∙ Shareholders hire managers to run firm
o Managers max profits and max stock price
Production Relationship: Fixed and Variable Inputs
∙ Inputs not quickly adjusted – Capital
o Stock: must be bought up front
o Fixed Inputs
∙ Inputs which can be quickly adjusted
o Labor
If firm wants to make more/less hires more/less labor
Labor is varied as firm changes its output (variable input)
o Intermediate Goods
Bought and used period by period
Are varied as firm makes more or less (variable input)
∙ Shortrun: time period in which firm can’t change # of machines, still has fixed input ∙ Longrun: time period in which firm can change # of machines, machines can be bought/
sold
Firm’s Costs and Accounts
∙ Cost of firms = cost of inputs
o Derived from production relationship
o Variable Cost:
Cost of inputs which do change w/ output
Cost of variable inputs – cost of labor
Upward Sloping: more output requires more inputs, and costs more
*When output is low, slope is flat; when output is high, slope is steep (We call this increasing marginal costs)
o Total Cost: Machine Cost (fixed cost) + Labor Cost (variable cost) We also discuss several other topics like What is the role and importance of communication?
∙ Cost of workers = wage
∙ Cost of intermediate inputs = purchase price If you want to learn more check out What is the purpose of nucleotide?
∙ Firm keeps two sets of accounts: Don't forget about the age old question of When did paranthropus aethiopicus live?
o Accounting (external books) = focus on telling shareholders profits
o Managerial (internal books) = focus on making good decisions
o Economists = focus on social evaluation
o Accountant and Manager/Economist Calculate Cost Differently Don't forget about the age old question of Why does plato think one can survive the death of one’s body?
Accountant: focuses on total amount of money shareholders receive If you want to learn more check out What is the collective action problem?
Manager/Economist: when making decisions, managers take account of fact that shareholders had an expected return in mind, or there was
opportunity cost of the funds they contributed. Cost of all money spent on machines is included as a cost
*See breakdown of how each does the books in Lecture 22 Don't forget about the age old question of What does the varicella zoster virus do?
In the Short Run:
∙ Managers decide whether to have more workers to produce more output: o If price > MC , by producing more profits increase
o If price = MC, profit maximized
o If price < MC, by producing less profits increase
∙ Calculation doesn’t include cost of machines because no new machines are to be bought (or “Fixed costs don’t affect output in the short run.”)
In the Long Run:
∙ Do managers want to expand by building another plant?
∙ Margin is line which divides plants built from plants not built, is the firm making profit from existing plant? If Yes, it can make more profit by moving margin and building
another plant
∙ To build new plant, must buy new machines as well as new workers, new plant will be
like the existing one
∙ Does money coming in from existing plant exceed cost of machines and workers of
existing plant?
∙ Build the new plant if the price greater than or equal to average total cost, i.e. p≥ATC. ∙ Longrun ATC are equal to or below shortrun ATC (see Mankiw p. 272). Why?
*As output goes up, marginal cost goes up
Invisible Hand Theory: The unobservable market force that helps the demand and supply of goods in a free market to reach equilibrium automatically
Measures of costs
I would add a section here about the relationships between the different types of costs, e.g. fixed and variable costs, average and marginal, average total vs. average variable, etc. See Lecture 24 and Mankiw pages 265274.
Marginal Product of Labor
If few workers at firm, hiring an extra worker allows each worker to specialize in jobs they do best, or in which they have comparative advantage, tasks can be broken down so individual gets really good at them
*MPL initially increases, then falls
Full Statement of Law of Diminishing Marginal Product
Beyond some level, as firm uses more workers
∙ More crowding of machines dominates gains from spectrum
∙ Each additional worker gives smaller increase in output
∙ Each additional worker has diminishing MP
Full Statement of Law of Increasing Marginal Cost
Beyond some level of output, firm produces more output
∙ Extra workers less productive
∙ Marginal Cost Increases
Competitive Firms
∙ Market demand curve is downward sloping
∙ Firm currently Selling 50 @ Market Price $10
∙ Firm thinks: what happens to price if doubled output?
o Many sellers: S shifts 500 to 550, a little shift negligible effect on price Short Run and Long Run
∙ Two types of input
o Machines: Cannot quickly be adjusted or fixed, labor and intermediate o Inputs: Can be changed quickly
Firm Production Decision
∙ In ShortRun:
o Presence: Manager must decide whether firm makes more profit by producing or
shutting down
o Level: If Managers decide firm is going to produce, must decide which output
makes most profit
∙ In LongRun:
o Presence: Does firm make more profit by producing or by exiting?
o Level: If firm produces, what output makes the most profit?
*See Lecture 25 for Good Example of how to decide
Profits
∙ Operating = revenue – costs incurred b/c operation (variable costs)
o (pAVC)*Quantity
∙ Accounting = revenue – costs for which legally responsible (variable costs + bank
interest)
∙ Economic = revenue – (long run) opportunity costs (variable costs + fixed costs {bank interest and opportunity cost of shareholder funds})
Revenue = price * quantity
Marginal Revenue (if an extra unit is sold) – MR = price
Average Revenue: AR = total revenue/quantity = price*quantity/quantity = price *for shortrun decision making, managers focus on operating profit
example: Revenue $31,000 – less Variable costs of $15,000
= Operating Profit of $16,000 *shortrun
$16,000 less fixed legal cost of $7,000
= Accounting profit of $9,000
$9,000 – less cost of shareholder funds of $6,000
=Economic profit $3,000 *longrun
Short Run Presence: Existing Firm
∙ Continue to produce if better in than out (can make operating profit) ∙ Why are fixed costs not important?
o Must be paid whether produce or shutdown
∙ Produce if you can make positive operating profit or if total revenue is greater than or
equal variable cost
∙ If price is greater than or equal to minimum average variable cost:
o There are outputs for which price > AVC
o Therefore: produce
∙ If price is less than minimum average variable cost:
o At all outputs, AVC > price (cost of producing exceeds revenue)
o Therefore: shut down
In long run: total revenue > total cost
∙ Firms want to enter if price is greater than or equal to ATC or if price is greater than or equal to TC/Quantity
∙ Firms produce all units for which MC is less than or equal to price or until MC = price ATC = AFC + AVC
Fixed Cost = AFC * Quantity
Short Run Equilibrium
∙ Remember in Short Run: cannot acquire or dispose of machines, # of firms fixed ∙ Firm’s supply curve is its MC curve above minimum AVC
∙ Price and Quantity determined by actual # of firms present
∙ If # of firms is larger, supply curve is shifted to the right, price goes down Long Run Equilibrium
∙ Can change machines, enter or exit
∙ Long run price and quantity determined by intersection of demand and supply Long Run Supply Curve
∙ If price is greater than minimum ATC, firms make profits
o Existing firms build new plants and new firms enter
∙ SR market supply curve moving to the right, price goes down
∙ Although market is at SR equilibrium, number of firms is changing, system not at rest Perfect Competition to Monopoly
∙ Firms like being monopolies
∙ Higher Prices = Higher Profits
∙ Natural Process: profits induce entry
o Prices fall, profits dissipate
*Monopolies not expected to last long
Barriers to Entry
∙ Legal Barrier: Patent or Copyright
∙ Technical Barrier: Other firms don’t have technology
∙ Resource Barrier: Key resource owned by single firm
∙ Cost Barrier: High fixedcosts, single producer can supply all market @ lower cost Monopoly
∙ General rule for setting output MR = MC
o Applies also to competitive firm
∙ Manager now increasing output until:
o MC = MR instead of MC = price
∙ Big connection between what firm produces and the price
∙ Firm sets price by choosing its output
o Price making vs price taking
∙ MR curve lies below demand curve
∙ Monopolist demand curve is industry demand curve
o Can either: choose price, this sets output OR choose output, this sets price ∙ If industry not organized as perfectlycompetitive market but as monopoly total well
being NOT as large as possible
∙ With market organized as Monopoly:
o When profit is maximized MR = MC
o Using D curve, draw MR curve
∙ Monopoly raises price to get more profit and thereby reduce quantity, wellbeing is lost on goods not made (shifts surplus from consumer to shareholders)
Marginal Revenue: change in revenue / change in quantity
Total WellBeing: Consumer surplus + Profit
Calculating NB Lost: Most amount possible – NB created w/ monopoly *This is called the Deadweight Loss (can be calculated as a triangle)
In general:
∙ As firms increase, lower prices, increased wellbeing
∙ As firms decrease, higher prices, decreased wellbeing
How monopolies can happen:
∙ Firms take over competitors or merge
o Fewer firms, higher price, higher profit
∙ Monopoly must be created in “nonaggressive” manner
o Predatory Pricing = large company w/ many other products generally revenue lower price of product so smaller competitors make losses and exit, after raises
price
o Price Fixing = firms get together and agree to sell at high price
Pricing Policy: Marginal Cost Pricing
∙ Regulate price so price = marginal cost @ efficient quantity
∙ Monopoly take price as given, MR = price
∙ Maximizes profits by producing all units for which MC is less than or equal to price *if company is making a loss where p = MC any loss is covered by taxpayer Oligopoly: few firms (in between competitive market and monopoly)
∙ More firms = lower price
o Decreases wellbeing lost or increases wellbeing gained
∙ Fewer firms = raised price
o Increases wellbeing lost or decreases wellbeing gained
∙ Market failure: market fails to make NB as large as possible
o To increase profits, monopoly sets price > MC so individual is comparing MC
with something greater than MC, individual buys until MB = price > MC o So planner and individual make different decisions, net benefit is lost
Externality: what one person or firm does directly affects others, effect which is outside/external to the user or firm
Goods with Consumption Externalities: when individual buys/consumes an extra unit of the product
MB of society = MB of buyer + External Marginal Benefit – External Marginal Cost EMC = external marginal cost
∙ Wellbeing lost by others if an individual undertakes extra unit of activity ∙ $s which if withdrawn from others gives them same loss in wellbeing
EMB = external marginal benefit
∙ Wellbeing gained by others if individual undertakes extra unit of activity ∙ $s which is received by others, gives them same gain in wellbeing
Positive Consumption Externality: others experience benefit when buyer buys extra unit, buyer buys until MB of buyer = price *see lecture 35
Negative Consumption Externality: others experience costs when buyer consumes extra unit, buyer buys until MB of buyer = price
Negative Production Externality: others experience costs when firm produces extra unit ∙ ex: If extra unit electricity produced by burning coal, others get smoke and temperature change
Positive Production Externality: others experience benefits when firm produces extra unit (other than by using that good)
In general: consumption externalities affect MB of society curve, production externalities affect MC of society curve
∙ ex: If Colorado power increases dam size by 1 unit, other benefit from better sailing Goods w/ Production Externalities: when firm produces an extra unit, MC of firm is amount of $ it spends on additional resources when extra unit is produced: MC of firm = MC of resources
∙ MC of society is MC of resources plus cost imposed on others less benefits gained by others when extra unit produced: MC of society = MC of resources + EMC – EMB Pigou Taxes
∙ Difference in planner and market output levels arises because the planner and the firm
use different MCs: MC of society and MC of firm
∙ Planner knows that pollution has an EMC, but this is not a cost which the firm pays, firm
thinks pollution is free
∙ Policy: Make the firm pay a tax equal to EMC of poll, MC of firm = MC resources +
EMC (or Pigou tax)
∙ Then manager and planner see the problem the same way, use the same MCs and make the same decision
Big Picture: Economists prefer Pigou Taxes, Politicians prefer regulation Regulation: instead of firm paying price to pollute and choosing how much to pollute, regulator (EPA) sets a pollution quantity for each firm
∙ Ex: minimum % of electricity generate by renewable sources
∙ Sophisticated Regulation: EPA could set rules which mimic efficient quantity