Description
Geol 118 Exam 3 Review Sheet
(Covers Climate Change I to Meteorite Impact)
Climate Change I
Climate Zones
∙ Temperature and precipitation simplest way to classify zones
Lines of Evidence
∙ Tree rings
∙ Micro fossils
∙ Gas bubbles locked in ice cores
Greenhouse Gases & What They Affect
∙ Methane
∙ Carbon Dioxide
∙ Nitrous Oxide
1) Instrumental Record
Measurement of temperature made directly
Carbon dioxide
Weather stations, balloons, buoy
2) Historical Record
Written recollection
Books, journal articles
3) PseudoProxy Record
Indirect measurement of temperature
Provides best evidence that predates historical data and instruments
Causes of Climate Change
∙ Natural Change: plate tectonic, Milankovitch cycle
∙ Climate forcing: imposed change on Earth energy balance
Climate Change II
PreCambria: Hell on Earth (4.6 – 3.0 Ga)
∙ H2O, CO2, SO2, N2, NH2
∙ H2O condenses => rain => oceans
∙ CO2 dissolves in oceans
∙ More CO2 (enhances greenhouse effect)
∙ 90% of Carbon dioxide (sequestered) sinks to form limeston Snowball/Slushball Earth
∙ Global distribution of glacial deposits
∙ Worlds ocean frozen to 12 km depth
∙ Banded Iron Formations with
Dropstones: a piece of rock eroded from a continent by a glacier
Phanerozoic CO2 Levels
∙ CO2 levels can be inferred from ancient soils, organic carbon, and stoma density
Photosynthesis: The Organic Carbon Record
∙ Plants preferentially take C12 (C13)
∙ Organic debris is enriched in C12 (C13)
∙ Organicrich shales are enriched in C12 (C13)
Organic Carbon Burial
∙ Increased burial of organic carbon leads to less CO2 in the atmosphere ∙ Less greenhouse gases = cooling
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End Mesozoic Warming (100 – 50 ma)
∙ Greenhouse interval
∙ Glaciers melted
∙ Sea level rise – flooding of continents
Why so warm?
∙ Increased levels of CO2 gas
∙ Release of methane gas from melted glacial ice
Pleistocene (2 ma – present)
∙ Ice Age
Glacier coverage = 30% of Earth
∙ Now: Interglacial
Glacier coverage = 10% of Earth
∙ 5 degrees cooler than today
∙ Punctuated by intervals of warm climate (interglacial)
Glaciers restricted to the poles
Breakdown of temperature over the last thousand years
∙ PreIndustrial Levels
Over 2000 years temperature changed by 2 degrees
Over 100 years temperature changed by 0.3 degrees
∙ PostIndustrial
Over 100 years temperature changed by 1.53 degrees
Over 30 years temperature changed by 0.5 degrees
Climate Change III
Future Ice Age We also discuss several other topics like tulane accounts receivable
∙ 1 degree to 2 degree change (little ice age) in 1300 to 1800
Current and Future Climate
∙ CO2 in the atmosphere has a warming effect
∙ Predicting the amount of warming precisely is complex; water vapor, clouds, and latent heat transfers are involved and are difficult to predict
∙ It is extremely unlikely that clouds, vegetation, etcetera, will save us from the effects of CO2
∙ Droughts will likely be worse
∙ Severe storms and floods will likely be worse
∙ Animal extinction will increase
Global Warming
∙ Fossil fuel combustion and deforestation (i.e. less photosynthesis) have caused steady increase in abundance of CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere
Effects on Climate Sunspots
∙ Variable amount of solar energy received by Earth can affect global climate
Volcanoes
∙ Largest historic volcanic eruption sent huge amount of volcanic ash and SO2 gas in stratosphere
∙ Tambora (Indonesia) eruption in 1815
Current Climate Change – Global Warming Effects
∙ 1 degree Celsius increase in average temperature of Earth over last 100 years ∙ Increase in greenhouse gas levels may result in global warming If you want to learn more check out life102.5
∙ 10 inch rise in global sea level due to melting glaciers and seawater expansion ∙ Certain forms of severe weather (heat wave, coastal flooding, extreme snow) are caused by human activities
∙ Severe weather is fueled by hot, humid air
Increases both heat and humidity Don't forget about the age old question of nutr205
∙ Evidence exists for increases in heat waves, coastal flooding, extreme precipitation, severe droughts due to climate change
∙ Climate change will impact agriculture and food production due to:
1) Effects of elevated CO2 in atmosphere
2) Higher temperature
3) Altered precipitation and transportation
4) Increased extreme weather
Solutions to Global Warming?
∙ Use noncarbon based fuel (renewable energy, nuclear energy)
∙ Energy Conservative
∙ Energy Efficiency
Coastal Erosion I
Coastline Overview
∙ Coastlines: where land meets ocean or large lake; including beaches (surf zones) and estuaries (semienclosed bodies of mixed fresh and salt water that attract many organisms)
∙ Beaches = Earth’s most dynamic environment due to continuous erosion, transport, deposition of sediment by waves or tides
∙ Beaches can undergo great changes during a single storm OR gradual continuous change due rising sea level
∙ Even stable beach (no net change in shape or location) has continuous sediment transport ∙ Coastal hazards = hurricanes/storms, tsunamis, coastal erosion
∙ Human intervention to protect areas from coastal erosion
Wave Origins and Properties
∙ Wave = energy in motion (mechanical energy moving through water) ∙ Wave size depends on:
Wind velocity
During of wind activity
Distance over which wind blows If you want to learn more check out study guide for financial markets and institutions
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∙ Crest = top of wave; trough = lowest point
Wavelength (L) = horizontal distance from crest to crest
Wave height (H) = vertical distance from crest to trough
Wave period (P) = amount of time for one complete wavelength to pass given point
Wave Refraction
∙ Bending of wave fronts as one part of wave reaches shallow water (velocity and wavelength decrease) before another part; wave refraction greatly reduces angle between wave front and back
Beaches and Beach Features
∙ Beach is strip of sediment (usually sand or gravel) accumulated by waves at coastline ∙ Split – fingerlike ridge of sediment that extends into deeper water; due to longshore currents, e.g., Cape Cod
∙ Barrier islands – elongated, low relief, very long (up to 100 km) islands of sand parallel to coast; common along US Atlantic coast
∙ Sea Cliffs – wave erosion can undermine cliff, causing landslides
Coastal Erosion II
Coastal Erosion – Overview
∙ Coastal erosion = ongoing, gradually developed geologic hazard in US and world
Large – Scale Coastal Erosion
∙ Causes
1) Global Rise in Sea Level – sea level rose due to global warming
Small rise in sea level causes large change in position of coastlines
2) Dams (loss of sediment supply) – sediment for beach drift is supplied mainly by rivers that enter lake or ocean (and eroding cliffs)
Prediction of Future Coastal Erosion
1) Prediction of future sea levels
2) Sediment transport processes
3) Amount of sediment supply (rivers, sea cliffs)
4) Nature of wave energy (predominant direction, size)
5) Sediment loss (amount of sediment loss, directions of offshore currents)
Mitigation of Coastal Erosion
∙ Seawalls – onshore wall of concrete or rock debris parallel to coastline. Purpose = to protect land behind wall from wave energy, but commonly fail because wave energy comes around sides and is reflected downwards, causing erosion ∙ Groin – wall of concrete, rock, wood, or sandbags built perpendicular to beach to trap moving sand and widen beach.
Groins usually successful on upcurrent side, but sediment supply for downcurrent side of beach is cut off and erosion occurs there
∙ Jetties – pair of long groins that keep harbor channel from filing up with sediment Jetties completely cut off longshore sediment transport, problem of upcurrent deposition and downcurrent erosion much greater than for groins
∙ Breakwater – offshore wall parallel to coast, to absorb wave and provide quiet water for harbors or widen beach
Problem = quiet water means deposition occurs behind endless cycle of dredging of harbor or sediment bypass begins; breakwaters widen beaches behind them but get erosion on downcurrent side
∙ Beach nourishment – bring sediment from offshore (relatively cheap but commonly too finegrained, quickly erodes away) or from other land location (expensive) ∙ Beach sediment ALWAYS move
∙ Anything action taken to counter coastal erosion is temporary and will affect neighboring beaches
Coastal Erosion III
Coastal Erosion Case History – Lake Michigan
∙ Chicago Area Lakeshore = borders most densely populated area in Great Lakes region, includes some of most highly engineered and humanaltered settings in region
Lake Michigan Water Levels
∙ Lake levels are more variable than sea level, depends on regional precipitation (heavy rains = high lake levels), and human controls (dams)
Lake Michigan – Coastlines Changes
∙ Now most of shore is protected, but erosion remains problem, especially during high lake water levels
Lake Michigan – Control Measures
∙ Revetments (lakewall) along Chicago coastline – rocfilled cribs designed to absorb wave energy
Revetments (lakewall) along Bluffs area – much of bluffs area protected by revetments (some groins, all built privately), wave energy is reflected downward, beginning to undermine protective barriers
∙ Groins
∙ Jetties
∙ Breakwaters
∙ Beach nourishment
River Principles
Importance of Rivers – Societal Benefits
∙ Rivers have always been used as major transportation routes
∙ Rivers also provide a ready source of food
∙ Rivers with dams can provide a relatively clean, reliable, and renewable source of energy => hydroelectric power
Hazards of Rivers – Floods
∙ Rivers can experience quickly developed, devastating floods called flash floods
Rivers Defined
∙ Flowing water at Earth’s surface usually confined to low area (channel)
River – Source of Water and Flow
∙ Water derived from rain or snowmelt; moves over land surface or through ground into river
∙ Tributaries merge to make bigger rivers as water flows downstream
River Sediment Load
∙ Material carried by river is its load; includes grains (ranging in size from clay through boulders) carried in suspension or rolled along bottom
Streamflow Characteristics – Velocity
∙ Velocity (v) = water speed
∙ Lower velocity along river bottom and sides because friction with stationary channel was slow river water
∙ Discharge (Q) = volume of water passing point over period of time (ft3/sec)
Discharge = V x A = velocity x crosssectional area
Discharge = velocity x width x depth
A = crosssectional area of river (m3)
River – Longitudinal Profile
∙ Gradient of river = downhill slope, vertical drop divided by horizontal distance (rise/run) ∙ Longitudinal profile: Graph of river’s elevation along its flow direction
River Velocity Trends
∙ Due to change in size of river channel, small in source area and much larger near mouth ∙ Maximum velocity of river in plains usually faster than river in mountains due to larger size of river near its mouth
River Longitudinal Profile – Effect of Dam Construction
∙ Dam construction traps all sediment in reservoir (temporary base level) resulting in upstream deposition and downstream erosion (water has no sediment load), including coastal erosion
∙ Water discharge downstream of dam increases downstream erosion; it does not carry sediment to rebuild river bed as sediment moves downstream
Kinds of Rivers – Meandering Rivers
∙ Meandering rivers wander back and forth across floodplain, broad, flat area consisting of sediment deposited during flood; associated with broad valleys; bend in river = meander, typical of rivers in plains
∙ Meander swings can get so exaggerated that river eventually cuts straighter channel path ∙ Abandoned river meander (oxbow lake)
∙ Meandering rivers are constantly changing course due to continuous erosion and deposition along meanders
∙ When rivers change direction, zone of maximum velocity shifts from middle to outer part (due to inertia), causing erosion there Inner part of meander has reduced velocity, causing depiction of sand and gravel there
Meandering Rivers – Natural Levees
∙ Natural levees (sediment buildup parallel to river channel) commonly form due to deposition during flooding (water slows as it overflows channel)
Drainage Basin
∙ Area drained by a river and its tributaries = drainage basin (watershed), can be big or small; high ground separates one drainage basin from another e.g. drainage divide, continental divide (separates flow to different oceans
Dendritic Drainage Pattern
∙ Pattern of river and its tributaries often looks like veins of leaf; called dendritic drainage pattern
Delta
∙ When river enters ocean or lake, little to no current, get deposition of sediment load ∙ Landform of deposited sediment at river mouth = delta
Floods I
Floods The Problem
∙ Flood = river overflows its channel due to excessive discharge
Normal, natural hazard event that occurs along all rivers
Affecting more people than all other geohazards combined
High death rates are primarily in undeveloped countries
Causes of Floods – Heavy Rain
∙ Most common cause of flooding is heavy rain
Cause of Floods – Rapid Snow Melt
∙ Causes large input of water directly into rivers
Causes of Floods – Hurricanes and Tropical Storms
∙ Storm surges affects coastal areas, winds blowing onshore plus tremendous rain fall amounts
Causes of Floods – Dam Failure
∙ Another cause of flooding
Types of Floods – Flash Floods
∙ Two kinds of floods; upstream and downstream floods
Upstream floods (flash floods) are brief but severe, usually due to sudden intense rainstorm
Downstream floods (or rare dam failure) over a small area
Due to intense rain, water cannot infiltrate into ground quickly enough, instead it goes directly and quickly into river over land surface
Flash flood severity is worsened by impermeable soil
Steep slopes, impermeable soil, lack of vegetation (due to arid climate), and precipitation pattern (drought followed by heavy rain) favor runoff into rivers
Flash Flood Case History – Big Thompson River, 1976
∙ Flash flood occurred along Big Thompson River of Colorado due to 8 inches of rain in one hour
Flash Flood Case History – Rapid City, 1972
∙ Black hills of south Dakota got 15 inches of rain in 6 hours; caused dam failure, major flood of Rapid Creek
Types of Floods – Downstream Floods
∙ Large meandering river that spreads over floodplain due to prolonged rainfall (and snow melt) over large area
Size of Floods – Stream Discharge
∙ Stream stage = height above reference elevation
∙ Stream discharge (Q) = volume of water flowing past point over time
Discharge = V x A = velocity x crosssectional area
Discharge = velocity x width x depth
A = crosssectional area of river (m3)
Floods II
Size of Floods – Stream Stage
∙ One parameter to describe stream flow (flood size); stream stage = water height above the river bottom (somewhat arbitrary)
Size of Floods – Stream Discharge
∙ Other parameter describing stream flow (flood size); stream discharge (Q) = volume of water flowing past point over time
Size of Floods – Stage, Discharge
∙ Discharge and stage are related by rating curve (graph that shows specific relation between discharge and stage at given location along river)
Size of Floods – Hydrograph
∙ Precipitation data can also be shown
∙ Time between maximum rainfall and maximum flood stage (or peak Q) = lag time ∙ Upstream flood has short lag time, sudden rise and fall of floodwaters ∙ Downstream flood has longer lag time and longer flood duration
Prediction Floods – Flood Frequency Analysis
∙ Longrange flood prediction = flood frequency analysis, determine how often you can expect flood of particular size
Recurrence Interval, Probability
∙ Average number of years between occurrences of certain size flood
R = (N + 1)
M
∙ R = recurrence (interval)
∙ N = total number of years of record
∙ M = magnitude
∙ Probability (P) = risk (% chance) of certain size flood in any year
Problems with Flood Frequency Analysis
∙ Same rainstorm today vs. 50 years ago will produce very different river discharge valves
Flood Hazard Map
∙ Allows elected officials and city planners to restrict development near rivers ∙ Flood hazard map is (area surrounding river up to certain elevation)
Effects of Urbanization – Worsens Flooding
∙ Development of cities around rivers can intensify effects of flooding: More common
More severe
Short lag time
Impermeable Barriers
∙ Urbanization intensifies flooding due to concrete, pavement, buildings; don’t allow water to soak into ground
Floodplain Space
∙ Buildings also take up space in floodplain causing flood levels to rise
Storm Sewers
∙ Underground tunnels that send storm water runoff from streets directly and quickly into local rivers
Flood Mitigation in Public Policy – Preserve Wetlands
∙ Preserve wetlands (swamps) – excellent locations for rainwater infiltration into ground, rather than running off into river
Flooding Mitigation in Public Policy Mapping/Zoning
∙ Determine areas of risk and restrict land use (allow only parts, golf courses, agriculture: most effective approach from environmental perspective
Flood Mitigation in Public Policy – Mandatory Insurance
∙ Require those who live in floodplain to have insurance (for homes and crops)
Flooding Mitigation in Public Policy – Relocation
∙ Give government aid for highrisk communities to move
Floods III
Flood Control – Construction Measures
∙ Four major flood control measures involving construction are: channelization, floodways, dams, artificial levees
Flood Control – Channelization
∙ Channelization involves changing channel characteristics including straightening, deepening, or widening channel
Goal is to allow more water to be pass through river with faster flow or greater discharge
Flood Control – Floodway (Diversion Channel)
∙ Transports floodwaters away from populated areas
Flood Control – Dams/Reservoirs
∙ A dam blocks flows of river and creates reservoir behind it, useful for flood control because reservoir can be filled during high rainfall periods
Flood Control – Retention Pond
∙ (detention basin) is reservoir on smaller scale for individual towns or neighborhoods
Flood Control – Artificial Levees
∙ Humanmade walls of sand and mud built along sides of channel to raise height of riverbank, allowing greater flowing without flooding
Flood Control – Floodwalls
∙ Concrete levees
Flood Control Measures – Benefits
∙ All flood control measures reduce flooding (decreasing damage, deaths), erosion control, and water supply
Flood Control Measures – Drawbacks
∙ All flood control measures are expensive, temporary, and can give false sense of security Transfers problem elsewhere, habitat loss, lose flooding benefits (fertile soil, water)
Floods IV
Case History – Mississippi River Flood, 1993
∙ During summer of 1993, record floods plagued upper parts of Mississippi River. Worst flood disaster in US history
∙ Cause: high rainfall over large area for 6month period
∙ Many levee failures
∙ Damage: to agricultural land (sand eroded from river channel, deposited over crops in floodplain, also massive soil erosion)
Mississippi River Flood, 1993 – Damage to Des Moines, Iowa
∙ Largest US city to lose its water supply due to flooded water treatment plant
Case History – Red River of the North Flood, Spring 1997
∙ Red River of North begins near where North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota meet and flows north, forming borders between ND and MN
∙ During April 1997, area experienced worst flood disaster for area due to heavy winter snowfall and quick warming caused snow melt to fill river
Meteorite Impacts I
Importance of Meteorites and Meteorite Impacts
∙ Origin of Earth/Solar System (lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere) – 4.6 billion years ago; Earth (and solar system) formed by many collisions of many meteorites ∙ Role in Evolution and Origin of Life – meteorite impacts helped to cause at least one (possibly more) mass extinction during Earth history meteorites tied to origin of life, some meteorites contain proteinrelated amino acids, building blocks of life ∙ Economic Resources – certain metallic ore deposits
∙ Potentially Catastrophic Natural Disaster – meteorite impacts could produce worst natural disaster of all, causing mass extinction of many organisms including human beings
Meteorite Terms: Stony Meteorite, Carbonaceous Chondrite
∙ Meteorite = piece of rock or metal (large or small) that has collided with Earth ∙ Stony meteorite resembles igneous rock of Earth’s mantle
∙ Carbonaceous chondrite = type of stony meteorite with round blobs of rock (chondrules) dark, finegrained carbonrich matter, including organic compounds and other volatile compounds, requires formation in cold/outer regions of solar system
Meteorite Key Terms – Iron Meteorite
∙ Iron (metallic) meteorite resembles Earth’s core (stonyiron meteorites include rock and iron metal)
Meteorite Key Terms – Meteoroid, Meteor, Meteoritics
∙ Meteoroid = piece of rock or metal floating in space (on collision course with Earth) ∙ Meteor (shooting star) = very small (often 1mm, always <1m) piece of rock or metal that vaporizes upon entering Earth’s atmosphere
∙ Meteoritics = scientific study of meteorites, meteoroids
Meteorite Key Terms Meteor Shower
∙ Meteor shower = large number of meteors all coming from the same direction
Meteorite Impacts – Tunguska, Siberia 1908
∙ Mysterious explosion occurred in Tunguska area
∙ Massive fireball streaked across the sky
∙ No deaths
∙ Trees destroyed