Description
Chapter 15 Study Guide
Chapter 1:
1. Economics is the study of people’s choices
● Microeconomics: Study of how individuals, firms, and governments make choices ● Macroeconomics: Study of the economy as a whole
2. First principle people try to optimize: choose best available option when given info 3. Second principle economic systems tend to be in equilibrium: situation which no one benefits by changing his/her own behavior
● Free Rider Problem: Individual/group takes advantage of a public good ? Deal with this: 1. Group needs to decide what is “fair”
2. Put pressure on free rider to get him to conform
? Markets have no hold on what is “fair”
● Find the greatest net benefit
● We don’t always succeed in optimizing, but we try to optimize when we can ➢ Bounded rationality: decisions made using limited info/time
We also discuss several other topics like how do scholars explain the emergence of race?
4. Third principle empiricism: analysis through data, applied to the real world
Chapter 2:
1. Model is a simplified description of reality
2. Economists use data to evaluate the accuracy of models and understand how world works 3. Correlation does not imply causality
4. Experiments help economists to measure cause and effect
5. Economic research focuses on questions that are important to society and can be answered with models and data
Important features of a model
1. Not exact
2. They generate predictions that can be tested with data
Chapter 3:
1. An economic agent is optimizing when he chooses the best feasible option ➢ Principle of Optimization at the Margin: optimal alternative has the property that moving to it makes you better off and moving away makes you worse off 2. Optimization using total value calculates the total value of each feasible option and then picks the option with the highest total value
3. Optimization using marginal analysis calculates the change in total value when a person switches from one feasible option to another, and then uses these marginal comparisons to choose the option with the highest total value
4. Optimization using total value and optimization using marginal analysis give identical answers
We do NOT always optimize and make the best decisions. Why?
● You have limited information
● New to the task gets better at optimizing with experience
● Sorting through information can be complicated and costly We also discuss several other topics like posi definition
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● You are inexperienced in dealing with a given situation
● So many different variables to juggle lot of tradeoffs
Two ways to do optimization analysis
● Total Value (opt. of levels): picks option with biggest total value
? Net Benefit = Total Benefit Total Cost
1. Translate all costs and benefits into common units
2. Calculate the total net benefit of each alternative
3. Pick the alternative with the highest net benefit
● Marginal Analysis (opt. of diff): difference between one feasible alternative and the next ? Simple because it lets you exclude irrelevant information focuses on differences 1. Translate all costs and benefits into common units If you want to learn more check out predict the molecular shape of methane, the carbonate ion, carbon dioxide, and the sulfite ion.
2. Calculate marginal consequences of moving between alternatives
3. Apply the Principle of Optimization at the Margin to choose best option
Chapter 4:
1. In a perfectly competitive market: every buyer pays and every seller charges the same market price, no buyer or seller is big enough to influence that market price, and all sellers sell an identical good or service
2. Demand curve: plots the relationship between the market price and the quantity of a good demanded by buyers
3. Supply curve: plots the relationship between the market price and the quantity of a good supplied by sellers We also discuss several other topics like alexandra rahr
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4. Competitive equilibrium price: equates quantity demanded and quantity supplied 5. When prices are not free to fluctuate, markets fail to equate quantity demanded and quantity supplied
Behavior of Buyers
● Quantity demanded: amount of goods that buyers are willing to purchase at a given price ● Demand schedule: a table that reports the quantity demanded at different prices ? Tells us how purchases change as price changes
● Demand curve: plots relationship between prices and quantity demanded ? Relationship is negatively related: one goes up, other goes down
➢ Most goods follow Law of Demand: quantity demanded rises when prices fall ● Willingness to pay: highest price a buyer is willing to pay for an extra unit
➢ Negatively related to quantity buyer already possesses
● Diminishing marginal benefit: willingness to pay decreases as you consume more of good
Shifts of the Demand Curve
1) Tastes and preferences
2) Income and wealth
3) Availability and prices of related goods
4) Number and scale of buyers
5) Buyers’ expectations about the future
● Demand curve shift: only when quantity demanded changes at a given price ● Movement along demand curve: price changes and curve hasn’t shifted
Behavior of Sellers
● Quantity supplied: the amount of a good that sellers are willing to sell at a given price ● Supply Schedule: table that reports the quantity supplied at different prices ● Market supply curve: plots relationship between total quantity supplied and market price ● Positively related: as one variable goes up, so does the other
● Most markets follow Law of Supply: quantity supplied and price are positively related ● Willingness to accept: lowest price seller is willing to get paid to sell extra unit ● Market supply curve: plots relationship between total quantity supplied and market price
Shifts of the Supply Curve
1) Input prices
2) Technology
3) Number and scale of sellers
4) Sellers’ expectations about the future
Chapter 5:
1. The buyer’s problem has three parts: what you like, prices, and your budget 2. An optimizing buyer makes decisions at the margin
3. An individual’s demand curve reflects an ability and willingness to pay 4. Consumer surplus is the difference between what a buyer is willing to pay compared to what the buyer actually pays
5. Elasticity measures a variable’s responsiveness to changes in another variable
Buyer’s problem all three must be taken into account
● What do you like?
● How much does it cost?
● How much money do you have?