Description
Exam III: Class Note Set II
Lecture 30 (11/13/2017): Sensory Receptors I
∙ How do animals perceive the world around them?
∙ Chemical vs. Electrical Synapses
∙ Presynaptic vs. Postsynaptic cells
∙ Synaptic Potential
o Is a transitory, graded change in the resting membrane potential of a postsynaptic
cell
o Excitation: an increase in the probability that a postsynaptic cell will generate an
action potential
Depolarizing signals are usually excitatory
o Inhibition: a decrease in the probability that a postsynaptic cell will generate an
action potential
Hyperpolarizing signals are usually inhibitory
Make membrane potential for negative, done by opening up ion channels that cause the cell membrane to become more negative (change permeability
towards more negative ions)
∙ Sensory Receptors
o We know that we need to convert environmental stimuli into a change of membrane potential (electrical potential). This is done through ion channels. This is what
changes the membrane voltage If you want to learn more check out What is the law of comparative advantage?
o We need to think about what proteins are in this cell to make it sensitive to
environmental stimuli
o Gated ion channels
Voltage gated channel: sodium and potassium channels in neurons that
generate action potentials.
Stretch Gated: pulls the channel open. How does your body regulate this stretch? That stretch can pull open ion channels, sodium is going to flow in,
and depolarization will occur
Phosphorylation Gated Channel: add phosphate groups to an ion channel so
that it will open up
Ligand gated: a ligand is present, it interacts with the ion channel, and causes the ion channel to change its shape. Ligands are neurotransmitters or they come from the environment
∙ Mechanoreception
o Thinking about stretch receptors and the change in membrane voltage o An example of a mechanoreceptor are the bristles found on the face of a fly o Figure 14.3
Mechanoreceptor cell to the bristle
The bristles move back and forth, think about the bristles pulling on the Don't forget about the age old question of Where does the DNA begin transcription of Gene expression?
membrane of the mechanoreceptor cell
Stretchactivated channels Don't forget about the age old question of When do we use the arithmetic expression?
The bristle movement is what is responding to environmental change If you move the bristle just a little bit, you wont open enough channels for We also discuss several other topics like What principle is based on the idea of the patient's vulnerability?
action potential to be generated
The receptors can be different from organism to organism
o Figure 14.6
Tonic Receptors: small generations of action potential over the course of the
stimulus
Phasic receptors: only respond to change. That’s with the onset of the
stimulus. You don’t have the constant generation of action potentials
o Statocysts
A lot of organisms have this
Statolith, this weight will be resting on the mechanoreceptors
∙ Hearing
o How are we generating sound from electricity (speakers)
o Tympanal Organs
Set up a membrane that will vibrate
Found commonly in insects (moths)
On each side there is a high sensitivity and low sensitivity channel
This frequency waves are essential for the moths to know if they are being
hunted by bats in the dark
o Hair Cells in Vertebrates
Afferent: peripheral to central
Efferent: central to peripheral
Hair cells are spread across the body of fish, there are water channels in the
sides of the fish that allow to water flow through
Cilia are just extensions of the membrane that move back and forth
We have a membrane in our cochlea, different frequencies are going to lead to the movement of different parts of the basilar membrane We also discuss several other topics like Carbonic anhydrase is a protein that takes what?
Lecture 31 (11/15/2017): Sensory Receptors II
∙ Chemoreception (taste)
o Receptors detect the presence of certain receptors from the environment o Taste is in some way straightforward because there are not that many different types
of receptors.
o For sodium receptors you have sodium channels that allow ions to flow through o Sour receptors: proton channels, sour comes from proton donors,
o There might be variation in the number of channels but all the flavors function in the
same way
o Sweet and Bitter, think Gprotein coupled pathways
Sweet and umami work in similar ways
Receptor activated by some sort of stimulus T1R1 and T1R3
Artificial sweeteners bind to these receptors that cause them to be activated Umami (flavor enhancer) receptors use one of the two proteins found in sweet
receptors. Foods that are rich in amino acid bind to umami receptors
o In bitter receptors, we have somewhere around 3040 different receptors, wide range
of molecules that we receive as bitter
∙ Sensing Heat
o Spicy or cold feelings
o There are ion channels that change shape in response to heat We also discuss several other topics like What is the difference between general jurisdiction and limited jurisdiction?
o Shape of proteins are context dependent
o There are a variety of TRP channels that vary in temperature dependence These TRP channels are the “hot/cold” receptors
It feels hot because these receptors have been tricked into opening
o Some animals use heat sense to seek on prey (snakes)
They have an extra hole in their head, loaded with temperature dependent ion
channels, they are able to get a crude thermal image of their surroundings Similar to the way a pinhole camera works
They process it as part of their visual pathway
∙ Chemoreceptors (smell)
o Found in your nose, all these chemoreceptors are sensitive to many different types of
smells
o We have a unique ability to distinguish smells from one another.
o As humans we do not have as wide a range of smells as other animals, we are very
visually dependent
o Some mammals have vomeronasal anatomy that we as humans completely lack ∙ Photoreception
o What is light? How do we detect light?
o There is similarity in how we detect light taste and smell
o Light is packaged into photons, little pockets of lights
o Photon gets absorbed, attaches to receptor, and it changes it shape, it causes the
membrane bound protein to change shape as well
o The chromophore will change shape when opsin binds to it
o Depolarizing photo transduction in the photoreceptors of the eyes of invertebrates Activates gprotein, activates the ion channel
o Hyperpolarizing phototransduction in the rods and cones of vertebrates When light is absorbed, that ultimately leads to the closing of sodium
channels
o Eye
There are a lot of photoreceptor cells lined as a sheet (retina)
Lots of lots of animals are light sensitive to different organs
∙ Parameters of visual systems
o There are a lot of different ways to build an eye
o However, we use the same parameters to evaluate how different eyes perform o Spatial resolution: sampling frequency in space (think pixels per square inch) Think about the sampling density of a camera
o Temporal Resolution: sampling frequency in time (think frames per second) You can only sample your environment so quickly
o Color vision: the ability of an eye to distinguish between light of different
wavelengths
o Sensitivity: how likely is it for a receptor to detect a signal if one is present? If there are more photoreceptors, there are more places that a photon could go
to
Larger photoreceptors would increase the likely hood that one photon would
go to a single photoreceptor
Larger eyes, would increase sensitivity
o Noise: how likely is it for a receptor to detect a signal when none are present? o Type I errors: detecting something that is not real
o Type II errors: failing to detect something real