Description
Study Guide for Exam 1
Only chapter 2, 3, 5 and part of 6
Chapter 2
Microscopy
∙ Microscopy: study of minute organism through the aid of a microscope 1. Lenses and the Bending of Light
Refraction: occurs when light is refracted/bent from one medium to another Refractive index: measures how greatly a substance slows the velocity of light Speed of light: 3 x 108 m/s
Lenses: focus light rays at the focal point
Focal length is the distance between center of lens and the focal point ∙ The closer the light is to the focal length, the higher the magnification. 2. Types of light microscope
Bright field microscope
Resolution: lens can separate and distinguish between small objects that are close together.
The major factor is the wavelength of light that is use.
∙ The shorter the wavelength, the greater the resolution
∙ Numerical aperture of objective lens also affects resolution. The larger the numerical aperture, the greater the resolution and the shorter the working distance Working distance: distance between the lens surface and the surface of the cover glass/specimen when in sharp focus
Scanning objective or 4x
Low power objective or 10x
High power objective or 40x
Oil immersion or 100x
Dark field microscope
Use to observed internal structure of eukaryotic microorganism
Use to identify microorganism
∙ Treponema pallidum: cause syphilis
Differential Interference Contrast microscope
Detects differences in refractive indices and thickness using 2 beams of polarized light If you want to learn more check out ochem 2
Forms 3D image
Great way to observe living cells
Confocal Microscopy
The focus laser beam is used to illuminate a specific point on a specimen Light from illuminated spot is focus by an objective lens
Creates a sharp image (3D) using a laser beam. We also discuss several other topics like ucla life sciences
Different varieties of Light microscope
Bright field
Dark field
Phase
contrast
Fluorescence
Confocal
Produce dark
image against a bright
background
Form image by light reflected or refracted by the specimen
Converts
differences in refractive
index into
easily detected variations in
light intensity
Forms bright
image of the
object
resulting from the fluorescent light emitted by specimen
Create sharp
3D image of
specimens by using laser
beam .
Several
objective lenses
Bright image against dark
background
Great way to
observe living cells
Has applications in medical
microbiology
and microbial
ecology studies
Has numerous applications
such as study of biofilms
Total
magnification= ocular lenses x objective lenses
Used to
observe living unstained
preparation
Some light ray form hollow
cone of light
passing
through
unstained cell slowed out of phase
Crucial tool in microbiology.
Specimens are stained with
fluorochrome
which is
important to
identify
pathogens with antibodies.
Use to localized specific proteins in cell.
Use aperture to eliminate stray of light and
computer
interface.
We also discuss several other topics like robert mirabello
3. Staining
Fixation: internal and external structures are preserve and fix in position Kills the organism and attaches firmly to the microscope slide
∙ 2 types of fixation
a. Heat fixation: preserves overall morphology but not
internal structure. Used with bacteria & archaea
b. Chemical fixation: protect cellular structure and
morphology of larger, delicate microorganism
Dyes and Staining
Know the common features of dyes. Don't forget about the age old question of uic math classes
∙ Basic dyehave a positive charge so they bind negatively charged molecules and cell structures
∙ Acidic dye have a negative charge so they bind positively to cell structures ∙ Simple staining uses a single staining agent to stain a specimen
∙ Differential staining is used to divide bacteria into separate
groups based on their different reactions and staining properties
♦ Gram stain widely use. Divide bacteria into gram + or gram
base on cell wall structure. ‘[See slide 29 for mechanism. Very
important]
♦ Acidfast stain use to stain cell walls of certain bacteria. High
lipid cell wall content known as mycolic acid
c. Mycobacterium tuberculosis: causative agent of
tuberculosis
d. Mycobacterium leprae: the causative agent of leprosy
Specific structure Staining
∙ Endospore staining: heated, doublestain technique by which bacterial endospores stain one color and vegetative cells stain a different color
∙ Negative staining/capsule stain: is widely used to visualize diffuse capsules surrounding the bacteria. those capsules appear unstained and appear colorless against a stained background. We also discuss several other topics like uthscsa general surgery
∙ Flagella staining: mordant are applied with stains to increase the thickness of flagella. (easier to see). We also discuss several other topics like is mouthwash a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture
4. Electron Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)
Electron Cryotomography
Transmission Electron Microscopy Vs. Scanning Electron Microscopy i. {see slide 36 and 37 for more}
Transmission Electron
Microscopy (TEM)
Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM)
Electron
Cryotomography
1000 times better resolution than light microscope
Uses electron reflected from surface of specimen to create detailed image
uses rapid freezing technique to preserved internal features
Electron scatter when pass through thin sections of
specimen
Create a realistic 3D image of the specimen’s features
Images are viewed from different angle to create 3D structure
Electrons are transmitted under vacuum to reduce scatter and produce clear image
Can determine in situ
location of microorganism in ecological niches
Have high resolution image of cytoskeletal elements, inclusion bodies and viral
structures of
microorganism
Specimens must be cut very thin, involved chemical
fixation and stained with electron dense material
Other preparations methods are negative staining
shadowing and freezeetching (slide 3040)
5. Scanning Probe Microscopy
Scanning probe microscopy measures surface features by moving a short probe over the object’s surface
a. Scanning tunneling microscope creates an image using a probe that is one atom thick at its tip. Have high magnification (100 million times) and can view atoms of solid. The resolution is such that individual atoms can be
observed. Up/down movement of probe detected is used to create image on surface of specimen.
b. The atomic force microscope: Sharp probes moves over specimen’s surface at constant distance. The up/down movement of probe detected is used to create an image
Chapter 3
Bacterial Cell Structure
Main points:
Be able to list characteristics of prokaryotic cells
Be able to distinguish bacterial cell from other cells types base on shape, arrangement, size and cells structures.
1. Typical Bacteria cells
Shape: Cocci/spheres and rods/bacilli
Cocci (coccus)
∙ diplococci (s., diplococcus) – pairs
∙ streptococci – chains
∙ staphylococci – grapelike clusters
∙ tetrads – 4 cocci in a square
∙ sarcinae – cubic configuration of 8 cocci
Bacilli (s., bacillus) – rods
∙ coccobacilli – very short rods
Arrangement is determined by plane of division and separation
Vibrios – resemble rods, comma shaped
Spirilla (s., spirillum) – rigid helices
Spirochetes – flexible helices
Mycelium – network of long, multinucleate filaments
Pleomorphic – organisms that are variable in shape
Size: varies
Smallest: Mycoplasma
Medium: E. Coli
Large: Epulopiscium fishelsoni
Know size and shape relationship. [ see slide 9]
Know Bacteria cell organization and common features. Look over table 3.1 on slide 10 2. Bacteria Plasma membrane
The cell envelope includes the plasma membrane, cell wall, and other external layers of the cell
The plasma membrane serves several functions:
∙ Encompasses the cytoplasm and separates the cell from its environment ∙ Serves as a selectively permeable barrier
∙ Interacts with external environment and contains receptors to detect transport systems used for nutrient uptake, waste excretion, and protein secretion ∙ Location for a variety of crucial metabolic processes such as: respiration, photosynthesis, lipid synthesis, and cell wall synthesis
∙ It contains special receptor molecules that enable detection of and response to chemicals in the surroundings
The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure
Proposed by Singer and Nicholson, states that membranes are lipid bilayers with floating proteins
Cell membranes are very thin. Lipids are amphipathic meaning they have a hydrophilic (interact with water) head groups and long hydrophobic (insoluble in water) tails; Two types of proteins are associated with the lipid bilayer of the membrane: ♦ peripheral (loosely associated/ easily removed)
♦ integral (embedded within the membrane/help carry out crucial functions) Bacterial Lipid
Saturation level reflect environmental condition
Lack sterols but contain sterol like molecule such as hopanoid to stabilize membrane
Know how nutrients are uptake through the barrier and where they are found, their roles Etc. (see slide 16)
Macronutrients: C, O, H, S, P, N, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe
Micronutrients: Mn, Zn, Co, Ni, Cu
Know what growth factors are and their role
Classes: Amino acids, purines/pyrimidines, vitamins and heme
Know the methods of uptake of nutrients
facilitated diffusion
active transport
group translocation: energy dependent, chemically changes molecules as it enters the cell
∙ phosphoenolpyruvate: sugar phosphotransferase system (PTS) is best known
[see slide 21 for more]
Passive diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Molecules move from high concentration to low
concentration
Similar to passive, but
molecules are not energy dependent
Need energy in the form of ATP to transport molecules against the gradient
Ex: water, oxygen and carbon dioxide
Size of concentration gradient impacts the rate of uptake
Need carrier proteins
(permeases)
Know your ABC transporters and your secondary active transport (see slide 2324)
3. Bacterial Cell Walls
Rigid structure; creates characteristic shapes for bacteria which protect the cells from osmotic lysis and toxins. May contribute to pathogenicity
The cell walls of most bacteria contain peptidoglycan (murein)
∙ grampositive bacteria: Stain purple and have a thick peptidoglycan
∙ gramnegative: stain pink/red and have a thin peptidoglycan and outer membrane ∙ both have the periplasmic space between the cell wall material and the plasma membrane
peptidoglycan structure:
polymer of identical subunits forming long strands of 2 alternating sugars: N acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
basic structure is connected by NAG amino acid
strands have helical shape, crosslinked by peptides for strength
Grampositive cell walls
Consist of a thick wall composed of many layers of peptidoglycan and large amounts of teichoic acids
Teichoic acids are negatively charged and help maintain the cell envelope & enhance its structural stability
The periplasmic space of grampositive cells is thin and contains few secreted proteins (exoenzymes) which help in the degradation of large nutrients
Acidfast bacteria include mycolic acids in their cell walls
Gramnegative cell walls
More complex than the grampositive cell wall; and has a thin layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by an outer membrane
The periplasmic space is often wide and contains many different proteins. The outer membrane is composed of lipids, lipoproteins, and lipopolysaccharides (LPS). No teichoic acid
Braun's lipoprotein attaches the outer membrane to the peptidoglycan LPS consist of 3 parts: lipid A, core polysaccharides, and O antigen ∙ LPS stabilize the outer membrane, stabilize outer membrane structure, attach to surface and biofilm structure, protect against some toxins, acts as an endotoxin The outer membrane is more permeable than the plasma membrane because of porin proteins that form channels through which molecules smaller than 600 Daltons can pass
Mechanism of Gram staining
After staining with crystal violet, shrinkage of the thick peptidoglycan layer of gram positive cells during decolorization prevents the loss of the crystal violet stain The thinner peptidoglycan layer of gramnegative bacteria does not retain the stain, and as a result, readily decolorized when treated with alcohol
Cell walls and osmotic protection
Hypotonic
∙ High concentration of solute inside the cell and low outside the cell ∙ Water moves inside cell and swell
∙ The cell wall prevents swelling and lysis of bacteria
Hypertonic
∙ Low concentration of solute inside the cell and high concentration inside the cell, which causes water to leaves the cell
∙ The plasma membrane shrinks away from the cell wall in a process known as plasmolysis
Look over slide 40
o Bacteria without cell walls (removal with lysozyme or through peptidoglycan synthesis inhibition by penicillin) called spheroplasts/protoplast.
Know the difference between protoplast and Spheroplasts
Protoplast: no cell wall, single membrane and gram positive
Spheroplast: no cell wall has 2 membrane and gram negative
Mycoplasma: have no cell wall and the plasma membrane is more resistant to osmotic pressure. Pleomorphic
4. Cell Envelope
Glycocalyx
Capsules and slime layers protects bacteria from phagocytosis and help in attachment to solid surface
∙ capsules are made of polysaccharides, well organized and not
easily removed
∙ slime layers diffuse, unorganized and easily removed
Slayers
∙ Slayers are regularly structured layers of protein or glycoprotein outside of the cell wall
♦ In gram +, S layer associate with outer membrane
♦ In gram – it associates with the peptidoglycan
∙ Slayers protect against ion and pH fluctuations, osmotic stress, and enzymes; help maintain cell shape and envelope rigidity, promote cell adhesion, and protect against host defenses
Bacterial Cytoplasmic structure
The cytoplasmic matrix is the substance bounded by the plasma/plasmid membrane; The prokaryotic cytoskeleton has homologs of the elements seen in eukaryotes.
See slide 51 to see more examples of bacterial cytoskeleton molecules FTsZ
MreB
CreS
Intracytoplasmic membranes
∙ Plasma membrane infoldings are observed in many photosynthetic bacteria and bacteria with high respiratory activity
∙ Anammoxosome in Planctomycetes are site for anaerobic ammonia oxidation Inclusions
∙ Many inclusions are granules of organic or inorganic material that are stockpiled by the cell for future use
∙ Some are not bounded by a membrane, but others are enclosed by a singlelayered membrane
Storage inclusions
glycogen storage
carbon storage, [polyβhydroxybutyrate],
polyphosphate granules (energy and phosphorus storage),
cyanophycin granules (nitrogen storage in cyanobacteria)
Carboxysomes are microcompartments that accumulate carbon dioxide and the enzyme Rubisco for CO2 fixation
Gas vacuoles are found in aquatic photosynthetic bacteria and archaea; provide buoyancy in gas vesicles
Magnetosomes
∙ Intracellular chains of magnetite particles for orientation in earth’s magnetic field. ∙ Cytoskeleton protein MamK helps form magnetosomes chain
Ribosomes
∙ Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis (translation)
∙ They are complex structures of protein and RNA
∙ Bacterial and archaea ribosomes are 70S with 50S and 30S subunits vs. eukaryotic with 80S and 40 subunits
Look over slide 59 and 60
Nucleoid
Plasmid
External Structures
Pili and fimbriae are short, thin, hairlike appendages that mediate bacterial attachment to surfaces (fimbriae) or to other bacteria during sexual mating (sex pili); ∙ Sex pili: longer and thicker. Less numerous
Flagella are threadlike locomotor appendages extending outward from the plasma membrane and cell wall.
∙ Functions: attachment to surface and motilitiy
♦ May be arranged in various patterns:
Monotrichous—a single flagellum
Amphitrichous—a single flagellum at each end of cell
Lophotrichous—a cluster (tuft) of flagella at one or both ends
Peritrichous— sprea over entire cell surface
Read slide 6565 to know more about flagella synthesis
Bacterial Motility
Bacteria and archaea have directed movement
Chemotaxis
Move in response to temp, light, oxygen osmotic pressure and gravity ∙ Prokaryotic flagella rotate to create motion (propeller);
∙ Direction of flagellar rotation determines nature of bacterial movement: counterclockwise rotation causes forward motion (called a run) and clockwise rotation disrupts run causing cell to stop (resulting in a tumble)
Read slide 7073 for more about motility of bacterial cell
Chemotaxis
Movement toward a chemical attractant or away from a chemical repellent Changing the concentration of chemical attraction and repellents binds chemoreceptors of chemosensing system
Bacterial Endospores
∙ The bacterial endospore is a complex, dormant structure formed by some bacteria which enables them to resist harsh environmental conditions
∙ Endospore structure
♦ (sporulation) spore are surrounded by thin covering called exosporium ♦ Spore coat are form by thick layer of protein
♦ Core has nucleoid and ribosomes
Sporulation is the process of endospore formation. It is a complex multistage process that can occur in hours
See slide 79 to see the cycle
Formation of vegetative cell
Activation
Germination
See slide 80
Chapter 5
Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Be able to identify eukaryotic cell structure and know common features and function Study Table 5.1 to know organelles and function
Eukaryotic Cell Envelopes
Know which types of eukaryotic microbes that have cell wall. How do they differ from plant cells?
Eukaryotic membranes are phospholipid bilayers with sphingolipids and sterols, also include phosphoglycerides and cholesterol
Microdomains in the membranes differ in lipid and protein content to participate in different cellular processes and function
Eukaryotes o not have peptidoglycan and lack chemically distinct cell wall Photosynthetic algae have cellulose, pectin and silica in their cell wall.
Fungi have cellulose, pectin or glucan in their cell walls
Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes
Have liquid, cytosol and many other organelles
The cytoskeleton is a vast network of interconnected filaments within the matrix which plays a role in cell shape and movement
∙ filaments that form the cytoskeleton:
♦ microfilaments (actin), microtubules, intermediate filaments, and motor proteins
read slide 14 & 15 to know more about the filaments
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Organelles of the Secretory and Endocytic Pathways
Endoplasmic reticulum
Irregular network of branching and fusing tubules and flattened sacs that have ribosomes attached (rough endoplasmic reticulum) or be devoid of ribosomes (smooth endoplasmic reticulum)
∙ Rough ER is the site of protein synthesis by ER associated ribosomes ∙ Smooth ER is the site of lipids synthesis associated by ER enzymes The ER has many functions:
∙ It transports proteins, lipids, and other materials within the cell
∙ It is a major site of membrane synthesis
The Golgi apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is a set of membranous organelles (cisternae) that is involved in the modification, packaging, and secretion of materials
∙ the cisternae exist in stacks called dictyosomes
∙ cis and trans faces
Lysosomes
are membranebound vesicles that contain hydrolase enzymes found in most eukaryotes
involves intracellular digestion
maintain acidic environment by pumping H+ inside the cell
Secretory pathway
Proteins destined for the cell membrane, lysosomes, endosomes or secretion are synthesized by ribosomes on rough ER
the proteins are modified and transported/released in vesicles of the cis and trans face of the Golgi apparatus
after release, some vesicles deliver contents to endosomes and lysosomes ∙ know the two types [slide 22]
Proteasomes are a nonlysosomal protein degradation system found in eukaryotic cells that degrades proteins marked with ubiquitin
Endocytic pathway
Used by all eukaryotes to bring materials into the cell
Endocytosis: cell takes up solutes or particles by enclosing them in vesicles (endosomes) pinched off from the plasma membrane which are then delivered to lysosome to be destroyed
∙ Phagocytosis—endocytosis of large particles by engulfing them into a phagocytic vacuole
∙ Pinocytosis—endocytosis of small amounts of liquid with its solute molecules [see slide 2528]
Know what the nucleus, nuclear envelope and nucleolus structure and their function. {slide 3032]
Endosymbioic Hypothesis
These 3 organelles: mitochondria, chloroplast and hydrogenosomes are thought to have evolved from bacteria cells engulfed by host of eukaryotic cell
∙ Mitochondria: power house f cell, found in most eukaryotic cell. It is the site of ATP generation and oxidative phosphorylation as well as tricarboxylic acid cycle activity. Can also reproduce binary fission just like bacteria.
♦ Ex: rickettsia: a type of bacteria that resembles a mitochondrion
♦ See slide 36 for the structure
∙ Hydrogenosome: small organelles in some anaerobic protist that conserve energy by fermentation and generate hydrogen; composed of a double membrane they share from their common mitochondria ancestor, produce ATP by substrate level phosphorylation and does not have their own DNA
∙ Chloroplast: type of plastid (a pigment organelles seen in plants and algae). Believed to evolved from cyanobacteria It is the site of photosynthetic reaction. Surrounded by two membranes {See slide 40 for internal structure}
♦ Stroma: site for dark reaction
♦ Have flagella and cilia that are bigger than bacteria cells
External Structures
Cilia and flagella are locomotors structures that differ in length and how they move the cell (slide 42)
Cilia and flagella are structurally similar. [slide 43]
Comparison Bacterial, Archaeal, and Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotes have a membranedelimited nucleus and many complex membranebound organelles, that performs a separate function for the cell
Prokaryotes lack a membranedelimited nucleus and internal membranebound organelles. Do not perform endocytosis
Archaea prokaryotes differ in the content of their ribosomal RNA
Despite the significant differences, they still share biochemical similarities: the same basic chemical composition, genetic code, and basic metabolic processes See table 5.2 in slide 47
Chapter 6
Viruses and Other Acellular Infectious Agents
Know the difference between a virus and a virion
Viruses contains protein and nucleic acid {see slide 4 for more}
Cannot reproduce outside a living cell, can cause diseases.
Viroids contain only RNA
Satellites: only nucleic acid
Prions: contains only proteins
Properties of viruses:
Virion: complete virus particle yet to infect a living host. Exist extracellular ∙ Infect all cell types [slide 6]
Structure of viruses
Nucleocapsid—the nucleic acid plus the surrounding capsid (protein coat that surrounds the genome). Some viruses consist only of nucleocapsid, other viruses may possess additional structures.
See slide 8 for size and morphology
Capsids
Protein coat of virus, protect genetic info and assist in the transfer between host cells Shape
∙ Helical [slide 11]
∙ Icosahedral [slide 12]
∙ Complex [slide 13]
Viral envelopes and enzymes
Envelopes are membrane structures surrounding some viruses
Lipids and carbohydrates are usually derived from the host membranes
Envelop proteins are viral encoded may project envelop surface as spikes or peplomers. ∙ Involve in viral attachment and used for identification of the virus
∙ Not all virus has viral envelop.
∙ Some virus has enzyme
Viral genomes
Either single or double stranded RNA or DNA
1. DNA viruses
a. Most use doublestranded DNA as the genome; the DNA can be linear or circular
b. Many have one or more unusual bases (e.g., hydroxymethylcytosine instead of cytosine)
2. RNA viruses—most have singlestranded RNA as their genome
Understand the onestep growth curve on slide 20
Viral Multiplication
Mechanism used depends on the virus structure and genome
1. Attachment /adsorption to the host cell
2. Entry and uncoating of genome
3. Synthesis: Expression of viral genes in host cell, virus takes control of cell's and produces viral proteins and genomes
4. Assembly: New virions selfassemble into mature virions
5. Release: virions released by budding or cell lysis