Description
1
Exam 1 Review
PSYC 450 (003) – Sensation & Perception
Chapter 1
The perceptual process [everything]
● Basic Processes of Perception
o Stimulus
▪ Distal Stimulus: Environmental stimuli, the attended stimulus
▪ Proximal Stimulus: Stimulus on the receptors, an image/representation of
the stimulus
▪ Principle of Transformation: Information has been
transformed from Distal → Proximal
▪ Principle of Representation: What you see is representation of the
stimulus.
o Electricity
▪ Receptor Processes
● Sensory Receptors (rods, cones)
● Transduction: Transformation of one energy to another
▪ Neural Processing
● Transmission: Information from sensory receptors goes to brain
o Experience & Action
▪ Perception: Brain’s “translation” of incoming sensations
● Conscious experience of the environment
▪ Recognition: Comparing perception with memory
▪ Action: What do you do with this information?
Topdown vs. bottomup processing and how these affect the Perceptual Process (you should be able to talk about these concepts with regards to several perceptual phenomena)
● TopDown Processing: Decision → Concept → Features → Data
● BottomUp Processing: Data → Features → Concept → Decisions
● Knowledge and experience can affect every step of perception
The psychophysical approach to perception
Stimuli → Experiences & Action (perception) (Psychophysical); Stimuli → Physiological Processes (PH1);
Physiological Processes → Experiences & Action (PH2)
Classical Psychophysical Methods [method of limits]
You should understand absolute threshold and difference threshold
● Absolute Threshold: The smallest amount of a stimulus present you need to detect it ● Difference Threshold: How much does a stimulus need to change or you to detect a difference in it
You should understand some of the various questions / methods: magnitude estimation, testing recognition, reaction time, phenomenological report, physical tasks & judgments We also discuss several other topics like towson emf
2
Chapter 2
Stimulus = properties of light / electromagnetic spectrum and how these properties are perceived The eye – everything about the optics of the eye and how it takes light and transforms it into electrical energy – it’s all fair game.
● Parts of the Eye:
○ Cornea: The outside of the eye
○ Pupil: Hole in the iris that lets light in
○ Iris: Muscle that constricts/expands in response to light level. Colored part of eye ○ Lens: Focuses the image on the retina
○ Ciliary Muscles: Controls the shape of the lens
○ Aqueous Humor: Fluid between the cornea and the lens, supplies nutrients
○ Vitreous Humor: Gellike substance behind the lens
○ Retina: Where vision occurs (rods and cones located here)
○ Fovea: Tightly packed with cones We also discuss several other topics like towson criminal justice
○ Blind Spot: Blood vessels enter the eye, optic nerve exits
The lens and how it accommodates; all of the potential clinical issues
● Accommodation: Changes in the shape of the lens to focus (focus on a pen in front of your face and then on something else farther away in the environment to observe how the lens accommodates and changes focus.
● Clinical Issues
○ Myopia
○ Hyperopia
○ Presbyopia
○ Macular Degeneration
○ Retinitis Pigmentosa
○ Detached Retina
How Visual pigment molecules work to transduce light → retinal, opsin, isomerization
Rods and cones – everything (function, distribution, clinical issues, wiring [and what this means], how quickly their visual pigments regenerate and what this means as far as dark adaptation [which is a part of function. Another part of function is their spectral sensitivity and so that cones give us color vision]) Don't forget about the age old question of which of the following perspectives holds that organizations depend on the external environment for resources, affect that environment through their output, and consist of internal subsystems that transform inputs into outputs?
Basic structure of the brain / the anatomy in the book
● Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN), Superior Colliculus, Striate Cortex,
The structure of neurons
● Soma: Body of the neuron
● Dendrite: Branches out and receives signals
● Axon: Transmits information away from neuron
● Myelin Sheath: Insulates; speeds up transmission
● Terminal Buttons: End of axon; secretes neurotransmitters
3
● Synapse: Point at which neurons interconnect
Chemical basis of action potentials
● Na+ flows into the neuron, causing a shift in electrical charge. Once the AP reaches +40mV, K+ starts flowing out of the neuron, reestablishing a negative charge in the axon. This is called the sodium potassium pump
Basic properties of action potentials
● An action potential is a propagated response: once it starts firing, it fires to the end without decreasing in size/intensity
○ AllorNone Law: ONLY fires if there is sufficient stimulus strength
● Absolute Refractory Period: Minimum length of time after an action potential before another action potential can begin
○ Limit to how quickly a neuron can fire
○ Typically around 1ms (millisecond)
Events at the Synapse (neurotransmitters and whether they are excitatory or inhibitory and the effects of each of these – hyperpolarization vs depolarization) Don't forget about the age old question of educ 202 uiuc
Excitation, Inhibition & the Response of the Postsynaptic Neuron (the circuits and what they show) Neural convergence and perception
Chapter 3
Lateral Inhibition (L.I.) {how it works (think about the circuits), how this relates to receptive fields (think centersurround antagonism) at the lower levels of visual processing, and that it helps us distinguish edges / contrasts }
● An excited neuron may reduce the activity of its neighbors
○ This means that if a single neuron is activated, it responds more strongly than if its neighbors are also stimulated, since they are often sending inhibition to
neurons on the same path
● Lateral Inhibition increases our ability to see contrast and changes
● Example: “Gray Ghosts” in Hermann Grid, simultaneous contrast
CenterSurround RFs in the LGN and optic nerve
The pathway through the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) to the visual cortex and that information is also sent to the Superior Colliculus
The LGN – what it does, afferent and efferent nerves, and the receptive fields Don't forget about the age old question of sdt gwu
(what do cells respond best to) of the LGN,
The Superior Colliculus – that ~10% of visual information goes here, and basically what it does ● Functions of the Superior Colliculus:
○ Localization in space
○ Eye movement control
○ Spatiotopic maps and multimodal spatial coordination
4
The optic chiasm
Receptive fields of neurons earlier in the visual process
Evidence for the notion that perception is influenced by the feature detectors in the striate cortex: Selective Adaptation & Selective Rearing experiments
Sensory coding – the idea of specificity coding (what the “grandmother cell” suggests), population coding, and sparse coding
“Flexible Receptive Fields” [I presented this as part of the Object Recognition lecture.]
Chapter 4 Cortical Organization
Organization of the Striate Cortex: Retinotopic and Cortical Magnification and then the various columns that make up the hypercolumns of the Striate Cortex We also discuss several other topics like marvin austin tweet
The Pathways & Streams of information FROM the Striate Cortex
Dorsal – HOW / WHERE – parietal lobe
Ventral – WHAT – temporal lobe
& the studies from the book with the monkeys and the people with brain damage; plus the fact that with the single dissociation, we know different mechanisms are involved, but we need a double dissociation to know that separate mechanisms are involved and that functions are independent of each other.
[and so what these different dissociations MEAN]
Modularity – the fact that we call these areas of the brain modules even though there always also distributed representation across the brain
Face neurons in the monkeys inferotemporal lobe translating to our fusiform face area (FFA) parahippocampal place area (PPA) and extrastriate body area (EBA)
The MindBody Problem – I’ve discussed this and brought it up a few times now, so clearly I think it’s important.
Experience and neural responding → How neurons can be shaped by experience (the Greeble study)
– You can bet that something about brain plasticity will be somewhere
Chapter 5 Perceiving Objects and Scenes
Difficulties for recognizing objects (book and slides)
● Object Constancy
○ The percept of an object seems to be unchanged despite the image being changed depending on viewpoint, lighting, etc.
■ So, we can recognize the same object in different viewing conditions
● Ambiguity of Image on the Retina
○ Inverse projection problem: an image on the retina can be caused by an infinite number of objects
● Object Learning
5
○ We can learn a new object in one viewing condition and be able to identify it in another
● Categorization
○ Being able to recognize an object you have never seen before
Just very basics of Biederman’s Recognition by Components Theory (it’s no longer in the book.) ● All objects can be described by a finite set of 3D shapes called geons
○ Geons: Geometric Icons
○ Biederman proposed that there were 36 geons
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
● Simplicity (Pragnanz)
● Similarity
● Proximity
● Common Region
● Good Continuation
● Synchrony
● Common Fate
● Meaningfulness/Familiarity
Perceptual Segregation – how we separate objects from the background
factors that determine this (but only when clear and without a bunch of differing evidence) Perceiving scenes and objects in scenes
Perceiving the gist of a scene (Potter, 76; Fei Fei, 07; Oliva & Torralba’s global image features) Know about the physical regularities and semantic regularities
Helmholtz’s unconscious theory of perception
Bayesian inference
Under “Connecting Neural Activity and Object / Scene Perception:
Definitions: binocular rivalry, neural mind reading
That neural activity reflect perception (not the image on the retina)
[I won’t ask you about “Are Faces Special?”
Chapter 6
Selective Attention vs. Divided Attention
● Selective Attention: Focusing on specific aspects and ignoring others
○ Helps us avoid being overloaded
● Divided Attention: Paying attention to several things at once
○ Traditional “multitasking”
How we scan a scene based on stimulus salience, attentional capture, cognitive factors, interests & goals, and the nature of our task within a scene and based on past experience Posner et al’s (78) experiment show how attention influences information processing Effects of attention on:
Appearance, physiological responding, synchrony of neuronal response
The binding problem
6
Feature Integration Theory’s explanation of the binding problem and the two kinds of evidence for FIT (Illusory conjunctions & visual search tasks)
Perception can be affected by a lack of focused attention as seen in inattentional blindness and change detection experiments
[STOP]