Description
Lecture 13: Neurohistology
~ 3 questions
Nervous Systems:
*CNS: Brain and Spinal Cord
*PNS: Somatic nerves (Voluntary) and Autonomic nerves (Involuntary)
Neuron: Conducts electrochemical signals via action potentials and neurotransmitters 1 Axon, Many Dendrites. Many different kinds of neurons.
Neuroglia: **Microglia: Immune cells of NS. **Astrocyte: Important for Blood Brain Barrier Myelin: *Made of Fat/Lipids *Wraps around/insulates neuronal signals *OLIGODENDROCYTE: CNS *SCHWANN CELL: PNS Fibers: * A: Heavy Myelin (Fastest signals) *B: Moderate Myelin *C: No Myelin
Lecture 14: Spinal Cord
~ 34 questions
Anatomy:
* Spinal Cord:
Conus Medullaris: End of spinal cord (at L1L2)
Cauda Equina: “Horses Tail”, falling pairs of nerves for lower limb Filum Terminale: String of pia mater, connects to coccyx. Stabilizes spinal cord. ***FILUM TERMINALE IS CONNECTIVE TISSUE, NOT NERVE TISSUE ~31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves: Cervical(8) Thoracic(12) Lumbar(5) Sacral(5) Coccyx(1) ***Spinal Nerve: Both motor AND sensory information
* Roots vs Rami: Roots: Send or receive only one type of nerve type to and from the spine ~Ventral Root: Motor Neurons ~Dorsal Root: Sensory Neurons (Dorssensory) Rami: Consist of both nerve type that fork from the spinal nerve ~Ventral Ramus: Both neurons to Front of body ~ Dorsal Ramus: Both nerves to BACK of body * Meninges
Dura Mater: Hard outermost covering layer of the spine and brain i) Epidural Space: The space around the outside of the spine cord, filled w/fat Arachnoid Mater: Delicate spiderweb layer that lines the inner wall of the Dura ii) Subarachnoid Space: Between Arachnoid and Pia. Filled with CSF. Pia Mater: Delicate layer that directly covers the spinal cord like skin of an apple Lumbar Tap: Used to determine meningitis by examining CSF. If you want to learn more check out How are v-shaped valleys created?
* L3/L4 or L4/L5 for tap * Top of iliac crest for finding these vertebrae * Order: Ligamentum Flavum Dura Mater Arachnoid Mater Subarachnoid space Reflexes:
*Withdrawal Reflex: 2 synapses, 3 neurons (sensory, interneuron, motor) [Pain response] *Stretch Reflex: 1 Synapse, 2 neurons (a sensory and a motor) [Knee jerk response]
Lecture 15: PNS
~ 34 questions
Sensory Receptors
*Pressure: Meissner’s Corpuscles and
Dermatomes: Strips of skin partitioned to certain nerves. *T4 is nipple *T10 is belly button Referred Pain: Pain happening one place, but being perceived as though it is elsewhere. The Plexus:
* Cervical: Phrenic Nerve: C3,C4,C5, Keeps you alive! (Controls Diaphragm) * Brachial:
i) Axillary: Deltoid muscle and skin of shoulder [Loss of Abduction] ii) Musculocutaneous: Biceps and Brachialis and skin of forearm [Weak supination] [Loss of flexion of arm at the elbow] iii) Radial: Triceps and posterior arm [wrist drop]
iv) Ulnar: Flexors Carpi, Flexor Digitorum, medial skin of hand [Claw Hand] v) Median: Hand, Digits of hand and skin of hand [Carpal Tunnel; Ape Hand] * LumboSacral:
i) Femoral: Quadriceps [inability to kick or flex at hip] We also discuss several other topics like What makes anthropological research methods unique?
ii) Obturator: Medial thigh [Loss of medial adduction]
iii) Sciatic: Hamstrings [loss of flexion of knee and extension of hip] iv) Tibial: Gastrocnemius, Soleus, Tibialis Posterior [foot eversion/loss of plantar flex] v) Pudendal: Pelvic floor [incontinence]
vi) Common Fibular: [foot drop/ loss of dorsi flexi]
Lectures 1617: Brain I and II
~ 78 questions
Brain Components: i) Cerebrum ii) Cerebellum iii) Brain Stem
Lobes of Brain:
* Frontal: Motor/Behavior [Anterior Brain]
* Parietal: Sensory [Superior Brain]
* Temporal: Auditory [Lateral Brain]
* Occipital: Vision [Posterior Brain]
Brodmann’s Areas: [1,2,3: Sensory Center] [4: Motor Control] [17,18,19: Vision] [22: Wernicke’s Area {Hearing words}] [41,42: Auditory Center] [44,45: Broca’s Area {Speech}] If you want to learn more check out What is the efficiency of otec?
Central Sulcus: * Precentral Gyrus: Center for Motor Control
* Postcentral Gyrus: Center for Sensory Recognition {the Homunculus} Blood Supply: * Internal Carotids: Middle Cerebral Artery: Lateral Brain (upper limb neurons) Anterior Cerebral Artery: Medial Brain (lower limb neurons) * Vertebral Arteries: Posterior Cerebral Artery: Posterior Brain If you want to learn more check out What is the audience?
~ Circle of Willis: Internal Carotid + Basilar Artery + Vertebral Artery CSF: * Cushions and washes NS * Made in CHOROID PLEXUS
* Arachnoid Granulations: Drains CSF into bloodstream
** Pathway of Drainage: Lateral Vent. Third Vent. Cerebral Aqueduct Fourth Vent. Subarachnoid Space
[Remember: LTCFS: Little Turtles Can F***ing Swim!]
Brainstem: *Midbrain: Topmost – Auditory and Visual Reflex centers *Pons: Middlemost – Regulates respiratory control
*Medulla Oblongata: Regulates involuntary controls (Cardio, respiratory, etc) ***Decussation site of both motor and sensory information Diencephalon: *Thalamus: Relays all sensory data except smell We also discuss several other topics like What are the shear and moment diagrams?
*Hypothalamus: Hormone master control + Metabolism (hunger, thirst, etc.) Cerebellum: Coordinates fine motor control and balance.
Pathways:
* Motor Tract: Precentral Gyrus Medulla (decussation) CORTICOSPINAL TRACT * Sensory Tract: Dorsal Root FASCICULUS GRACILIS and CUNEATUS Medulla PostCG Clinical:
*Upper Neuron: Spastic symptoms, Babinski reflex, spasms
*Lower Neuron: Paralytic symptoms, loss of sensation or movement
Lecture 18: ANS + Cranial Nerves
~ 45 questions
Sympathetic: “Fight or Flight”.
(short) Preganglion neurons: Acetylcholine; (long) Postganglion neurons: Norepinephrine *Adrenal Medulla : Releases both epinephrine and norepinephrine * Nerves found in the sympathetic chain alongside the spine
Parasympathetic: “Rest and Digest”
**Originate from cranial nerves that also innervates with parasympathetic system: (3,7,9,10) (long) Preganglion neurons: Acetylcholine; (short) Postganglion neurons: Acetylcholine Responses: Sympathetic: Heart rate increase, eyes dilate, airways dilate, bladder fills Blood flow to muscle increases, BF to GI tract decreases Parasympathetic: Heart Rate lowered, eyes constrict, bladder empties, BF to muscle decreases, BF to GI tract increases We also discuss several other topics like What are attitudes?
Cranial Nerves: *Special, separate from Parasympathetic or Sympathetic ***OOOTTAFVGVAH (Corresponds to cranial nerve number) (CN IXII) “Old Olly Oakland Told Timmy About Finding Very Good Veggies At Home” SSMMBMBSBBMM (Corresponds to cranial nerves, Sensory, Motor, Both) “Sally Sampson Made Molly Bite My Brother, So Big Brother Married Molly”
[Olfactory: Smell] [Optic: Vision] [Oculomotor: Muscles to move eye/shape the lens. ANS also!] [Trochlear: 1 Muscle to eye] [Trigeminal: Skin of face, head and teeth, sensory] [Abducens: 1 Muscle to eye] [Facial: Facial expression. Earlobe sensory. Tongue taste. ANS: Saliva and tears]
[Vestibulocochlear: Hearing and Balance] [Glossopharyngeal: Throat and some taste sensory. ANS: 1 Salivary gland.]
[Vagus: Motor to larynx and sensory to ear and larynx. ANS: Gut, Thorax, Heart] [Accessory: Back and neck muscle] [Hypoglossal: Tongue muscles]
Lecture 19: Eyes
2 questions, purely definition
Layers:
* Outer Eye: [Sclera: White covering] [Cornea: Controls light input to retina] *Lacrimal Gland: Tears * Conjunctiva: Lines the eye
* Middle Eye: [Choroid: Middle layer, blood supply] [Iris: Controls pupil size] * Inner Eye: [Pigment layer: Vision perception] [Nervous layer: Passes signal to brain] *Fovea Centralis: Sharpest vision if light falls here
Chambers: [Anterior: Aqueous humor] [Posterior: Vitreous humor]
Reflexes: Accommodation of lens: [shrinks: Near sightedness] [Expands: farsightedness] Pupil change: [Expands: More light, less resolution] [Shrinks: Less light, more res.] Retina: Pigment epithelia Rods + Cones Horizontal Cells Bipolar Cells Ganglion Cells Lecture 20: Ear
2 questions, also definition
Layers:
* Outer Ear: [Auricle: Collects sound] [Ext. Auditory Meatus: Ear canal] [Tympanic Membrane: Vibrates to produce sound perception] * Middle Ear: [Ossicles: Ear bones: Stapes, Incus, Malleus] [Eustachian tube: ear pressure] * Inner Ear: [Vestibulocochlear apparatus: Contains organs of hearing and balance] Hearing: In cochlea, hair cells on Organ of Corti being dragged by sound vibrations trigger. Where they are triggered in the cochlea determines the sound being heard. Balance: 3 semicircular canals will determine balance relative to the body’s position {i.e: Upside down versus right side up}. Utricle and saccules determine acceleration via otoliths.
Lectures 2122: Heart I and II
~ 79 questions
Structure:
Heart Parts: Atria/Atrioventricular Septum/Ventricles/Interventricular Septum ***Fossa Ovale: Hole between atria that is closed in adults Layers/Made of: *Pericardium (outer tough cover) *Myocardium (heart muscle) *Epicardium (inner lining epithelial layer)
Pathway of Blood: Right Atrium Tricuspid Valve Right Vent Pulmonary Semilunar valve Pulmonary Arteries (2) Lungs Pulmonary Veins (4) Left Atrium Bicuspid Valve Left Ventricle Aortic Semilunar Valve Aorta
* Electrical Conduction: SA node (R.A.) Pacemaker (initiates heartbeat) AV node (right atrioventricular septum) Bundle of His Perkinje Fibers [contracts heart] {Systole: Ventricles contract, AV valves close}{Diastole: Ventricles relax, SL valves close} Coronary Vasculature: ALWAYS FIRST BRANCH OFF AORTA
Right: Marginal (right atrium)
Posterior interventricular (posterior of ventricles)
Left: Anterior interventricular (anterior of ventricles)
Circumflex (wraps around to left atrium)
**Veins drain into coronary sinus, posterior to heart into right atrium ***** Auscultation:
*Sounds: 1) Lubb) Contraction of ventricles, closing of tri/bicuspid valve (systole) 2) Dubb) Ventricles Relax, closeing of pulm and aortic valves (diastole) Right Left
*Auscultation: 2nd intercostal Aortic valve Pulmonic valve 5th intercostal Tricuspid valve Mitral Valve (Bicuspid) [Remember: !! : AT NIGHT: or AT P.M.]
Lectures 2324: Blood Vasculature I and II
~56 questions
Vessels: Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Veins
Structure: i) Tunica Externa (Connective tissue)
ii) Tunica Media (smooth muscle, ANS innervation)
iii) Tunica intima (capillary only has intima, all else has all three. They need to be permeable. Tunica Intima is made of Simple squamous epithelia.) Sympathetic Effect on Vessels: Arterioles in muscles/active muscles dilate Arterioles in nonactive tissue and intestinal tract/stomach constrict Pulse Points: i) Brachial A. ii) Facial A. iii) Common Carotid iv) Radial A. *** Arteries: Upper
Aorta: into Coronary Arteries. THEN into:
1) Brachiocephalic trunk (only 1)
Right Common Carotid
a) R. External Carotid
b) R. Internal Carotid
i) Middle Cerebral (Lateral Brain, upper limb neurons) ii) Anterior Cerebral (Medial Brain, lower limb neurons) Right Subclavian
a) R. Axillary
i) R. Brachial
aa) R. Radial
ab) R. Ulnar
(Both aa and ab)R. Palmar R. Digitalis 2) Left Common Carotid (Branches exactly like R. Common Carotid) 3) Left Subclavian (Branches exactly like L. Common Carotid) Lower
Aorta into:
A) Abdominal Aorta
1) Celiac Trunk
i) Gastric ii) Splenic iii) Hepatic
2) Superior Mesenteric (small intestine)
3) Renal
4) Gonadal
5) Inferior Mesenteric (large intestine)
B) R./L. Common Iliac.
a) Internal Iliac
b) External Iliac
i) Femoral
aa) Popliteal
aaa) Posterior and Anterior Tibial Dorsi/Plantar Arch
****Veins: Upper
From Brain:
Vertebral Vein or Sagittal Sinus Internal Jugular Superior Vena Cava From Shoulders:
Digital Palmar Ulnar and Radial Median Cubital (draw blood here!) [From most radial to most medial] i) Cephalic
ii) Brachial
iii) Basilic
Axillary Subclavian (R or L) Superior Vena Cava
Lower
From Legs:
Plantar/Dorsi arch Posterior and Anterior Tibial Popliteal Femoral (Great Saphoreous Vein [used for vein replacement in open heart surgery] merges into) External Iliac (merging with Internal Iliac) Common Iliac Inferior Vena Cava
From Abdomen:
(Merging along way) Gonadal and Renal Inferior Vena Cava ALSO: (All Merging) Splenic, S. Mesenteric, and I. Mesenteric Hepatic Portal Vein Hepatic Vein Right Heart
*****(Questions will be along the lines of “You start from ____ going to ___. What vessels must you cross, in order?” for this section)*****
Lecture 25: Lymphatics
~34 questions
Vessels: Tissue L. Capillaries L. Vessels L. Ducts Venous Return (veins)
Pathway: [Right Lymphatic Duct: Drains top right 25% of body]
[Thoracic Lymphatic Duct: Drains the other 75% of the body] Lymph: Tissue fluid (ECF and plasma) and lymphocytes.
Purpose: Filtration of pathogens and production and training of B and T cells (immune sys.) Transport: i) Contraction of muscles ii) Negative pressure of thorax iii) Lymph valves Lymph Nodes: Purpose: Filtration of foreign debris and producing lymphocytes Structure: Encapsulated vessels going in and out, reticular fiber mesh (filter), with germinal sites for lymphocyte development Lymph Tissues:
i) Spleen: Between ribs 9 and 11; Upper left quadrant, posterior laterally. *Red pulp: Blood mesh. *White pulp: lymphatic tissue. *Reticular pulp: Filtration mesh. *Produces blood cells (all for fetus, lymphocytes for adults), Storage, Filtration, Immunity ii) Thymus: Found behind the sternum, vital to producing/training Tlymphocytes iii) Tonsils: Lymphoid tissue in pharynx and upper respiratory tract ,
Lecture 28: Blood
~23 questions
Function: i) Transport of materials ii) Immunological response iii) Regulation of pH, water volume, and temperature
Composition: 55%: Plasma [90% water, 10% protein]
** Plasma Proteins: [Albumin: osmotic pressure] [Fibrinogen: clotting] [Globulins: Antibody formation/ lipid transport] 45% Cells (.1% WBC and 99.9% RBC)
Cells: *RBC: 4 months. Hemoglobin for oxygen transport.
** Neutrophil: Most concentrated in bacterial infection
Eosinophil: Parasitic infections
Basophils: Histamine. Vascular permeability. Rise in leukemia. Monocyte: Large. Phagocytize debris and pathogens.
Lymphocyte: Create the longterm immunity against disease. B and T cells. RBC Formation: Bone marrow (red marrow) Creation of RBC and maturation. Different protein signals will tell certain blood stem cells what blood cell to become (such as erythropoietin will help make RBC). In becoming a RBC, the cell loses its nucleus and is filled with hemoglobin.
Lecture 29: Blood Types
~12 questions
ABO Chart:
Antigen Antibodies in plasma Can be transfused with A A AntiB A, O B B AntiA B, O AB A, B none A, B, AB, O O none AntiA, AntiB O
Universal Donor: O (O blood is compatible to any recipient because they won’t reject it) Universal Recipient: AB (AB blood has no antibodies for any blood types, so it can accept any type)
Wound Clotting (Hemostasis)
1. Blood vessels constrict at site of wound (prevents blood loss/shortens gap for clotting) 2. Platelets in blood activate, forming a mesh framework at the wound site
3. Other coagulants join, sealing the wound
In a wound, prothrombin activates to thrombin, which cleaves fibrinogen into fibrin, which clots wounds.
Anticoagulants: Responsible for fibrinolysis of a thrombus (cutting away coagulants at a clot) (Coumadin, heparin)