Description
∙ Know the quizzes
∙ HIV Life Cycle
◦ Reverse transcriptase replicates DNA from RNA
◦ Acts as transposon
◦ Eukaryotic cells have many retroelements
▪ old inactivated retrovirus copies
◦ HIV virion attaches to CD4 and CCR5 in the host cell membrane
◦ Virion fuses to membrane and releases core into cytoplasm
◦ Core dissolves and reverse transcriptase copies/replaces RNA to make dsDNA intermediate of viral genome
▪ () strand DNA made then 2nd
▪ drug AZT targets Reverse Transcriptase
◦ dsDNA enters nucleus through nuclear pore
◦ viral genome integrates into host chromosome
◦ dsDNA copy is transcribed to make mRNA
◦ Differnential splicing allows production of GagPol or Env proteins ◦ +strand RNA exits nucleus – associate a dimers for packaging in progeny virions ◦ Env proteins are transclocated into ER, modified during transport and exported to cell membrane
◦ Membraneembedded Env proteins assist packaging of RNA dimers and GagPol peptides into core
◦ Core particles assemble coated with envelope membrane and released ◦ As the virus buds off the PR protease cleaves GagPol peptide to complete the maturation of core (Protease is target of protease inhibitor drugs)
◦ Reverse transcriptase replicates DNA from RNA
▪ Uses host tRNA as primer
▪ RNA destroyed as DNA made
▪ Forms dsDNA (RT makes both strands and is target of AZT)
◦ Acts as transposon
▪ moves to nucleus
▪ inserts into host genome (random position)
∙ Drugs that interfere with HIV life cycle
◦ Nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI)
▪ zidovudine and AZT
◦ Nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors
▪ Tenofovir (also used to treat HBV (Hepatitis B virus))
We also discuss several other topics like wwxmm
◦ Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTI)
▪ nevirapine
▪ inactivates reverse transcriptase
◦ Protease inhibitors
▪ Indinavir and nelfinavir
▪ Blocks cleavage of HIV proteins into functional units
◦ Fusion inhibitors (acts after HIV attaches to CCR5 and CD4)
▪ Enfurvirtide
▪ Blocks fusion of HIV with cell membrane
◦ CCR5 antagonist (acts earliest)
▪ Maraviroc
▪ Blocks binding of HIV with CCR5 receptor
∙ PCR
◦ Picking primers using melting temperature (Tm) If you want to learn more check out econ 11 ucla
▪ Tm=4(#G + #C) + 2(#A + #T)
▪ primer needs to be in the 5’ to 3’ orientation
◦ Necessary parts
▪ DNA template
▪ primers (start and end)
▪ DNA polymerase
∙ usually Taq Polymerase
∙ It needs to have good activity rate around 75°C and needs to withstand high temperatures (95100°C)
▪ 4 deoxyribonucleotides (dNTPs)
∙ A, G, C, T
▪ Reaction Buffer
∙ this provides a stable pH
∙ If MgCl2 is not in solution it must be added separately Mg2+ is an important cofactor of PCR
∙ MMR Vaccine
◦ protects against Mumps, Measles, and Rubella (Paramyxoviridae) ◦ Mumps: Rubulavirus: spherical, enveloped virion
◦ Measles: Paramyxovirus (Morbillivirus)
◦ Rubella: Togavirus
∙ Major childhood disease that forms a latent infection that can appear later in life ◦ Chicken pox
◦ Later in life disease is shingles
∙ Poliovirus (Polio)
◦ Human enterovirus
◦ in the family Picornaviridae
◦ Composed of an RNA genome and a protein capsid, single stranded (+) RNA ∙ Sulk and Sabin vaccines
◦ both protect against polio
◦ Sulk: used dead viruses (inactivated)
▪ used in the US today
▪ administered by injection
▪ has minimal side effects
◦ Sabin: livevirus vaccine (used weakened “attenuated” virus)
▪ he believed that long term immunity could only be accomplished with weak but living viruses Don't forget about the age old question of cepillarse subjunctive
▪ The live virus in the vaccine occasionally became strong enough to be harmful ▪ still used in some parts of the world
▪ administered orally
∙ Know these viruses in detail
◦ HIV
▪ Infection cycle highlighted above
◦ Influenza (()strand RNA, multiple strands, enveloped)
▪ influenza viruses A & B
∙ seasonal epidemic
▪ Influenza C (mild)
▪ Structure
∙ segmented RNA genome inside capsid
∙ Capsid is inside lipid envelope
∙ 2 major envelope proteins
◦ Neuraminidase
◦ Hemagglutinin
▪ gets the name from that ability to agglutinate red blood cells
◦ strain names
◦ H1N1: Hemagglutinin1, Neuraminidase1
∙ Pandemic of 1918: Greatest one year loss of life in history We also discuss several other topics like gity karami utd
▪ Envelope proteins
▪ 8 separate RNAs in genome
∙ each encodes one protein
▪ ()strand RNA can’t be red by ribosome
∙ must be copied to (+)RNA
∙ No replicating RNA polymerase in host
∙ () RNA viruses must bring own polymerase protein into host cell ∙ () strand RNAs and viral polymerase move to nucleus
∙ (+) strand RNA made by viral polymerase
∙ (+) strand RNA transported to cytoplasm and translated by host ribosomes ∙ Viral envelope proteins transported to cell emmbrane via ER, Golgi, etc…. ▪ (+) strand RNA used as replicative intermediate to make () strand copies of the genome for packaging in virions
∙ virions assemble at the host cell plasma membrane
∙ Viral envelope proteins picked up as virus buds off from membrane ▪ Viral RNA polymerase are inaccurate and introduce many mutations during replication
◦ Antigenic drift
∙ Rapid evolution
◦ New flu virus strains every year Don't forget about the age old question of bms 300
◦ New vaccine necessary
∙ When 2 strains infect a single host cell, the genome RNAs can recombine & reassort
◦ Assemble new combinations of RNAs
▪ reassortment = antigenic shift
◦ polio ((+)strand RNA, nonenveloped)
▪ Enterovirus
▪ Reemerging in Syria
▪ Sabin/sulk vaccines
▪ capsid resistant to stomach acid and initially infects intestinal cells then moves to neurons
▪ transmitted by swallowing contaminated water (swimming pools, water supply, etc….)
▪ Icosahedral capsid
∙ Picornavirus (pico, very small RNA)
▪ Binds to receptors
∙ Endocytosed
∙ Uncoats inside endosome
▪ Releases ssRNA into cytoplasm
∙ (+)strand can be translated directly by ribosome in cytoplasm
▪ Makes a single protein
∙ single protein includes autocatalytic protease (Cuts itself into pieces) ▪ Cell cannot replicate RNA
∙ RNA viruses always encode own polymerase
◦ Since it doesn’t use cell polymerase it can avoid the nucleus
∙ RNA replicates in endosome
◦ ERderived vesicle
◦ () RNA is replicative intermediate
◦ Uses its own polymerase (translated from (+)RNA genome)
▪ Assembles in cytoplasm
▪ Exits cell (lysis?)
∙ details not fully understood
◦ herpesviruses (enveloped)
▪ dsDNA genome
∙ encodes over 70 proteins
▪ multiple envelope proteins
▪ Tegument between capsid and envelope (contains many proteins) ▪ Virus can bind to many host receptors (envelope fuses w/ plasma membrane) ▪ Capsid moves to nucleus and uses host plasmid to replicate Don't forget about the age old question of distress maintaining attributions
▪ Lytic infection
▪ mRNA
▪ latent infection (maintained as inactive plasmid inside nucleus)
▪ double stranded DNA
▪ Herpes simplex virus (HHV1 &2)
∙ Genital and oral herpes
∙ Latent infection in nerves
▪ Varicellovirus (HHV3)
∙ Variclla zoster (chickenpox and shingles)
∙ MMRV (MMR + varicella) is avilable
▪ Lymphocryptovirus (HHV4)
▪ Cytomegalovirus (HHV5)
▪ Roseolovirus (HHV6)
▪ some herpes virus can remain latent in host cells
◦ hepatitis C (enveloped)
▪ Rick from needle sticks in medical setting is very high
▪ NO VACCINE
▪ Long term liver damage, liver cancer, but can now be cured by treatement ◦ Childhood disease viruses covered by MMR
▪ Measles
▪ Mumps
▪ Rubella (enveloped, (+) strand RNA)
∙ german measles
∙ transmitted by inhalation, personperson contact
∙ Causes birth defects if mother is exposed during pregnancy ◦ Poxviridae (enveloped, double stranded DNA)
▪ Smallpox
∙ variola virus
∙ has been eradicated (no cases since 1970’s)
▪ Cowpox
∙ early smallpox vaccines used the related vaccinia virus
◦ Norovirus
▪ (+)Strand RNA nonenveloped
▪ causes gastroenteritis
∙ ship virus
∙ VERY contagious
∙ Very robust for a virus and survives on surfaces (nonenveloped) ∙ often food borne
◦ Chikungunya fever
▪ 20132014 outbreak in the Caribbean (now in US)
▪ transmitted by insect bites
▪ Caused by Alphavirus (transmitted by arthropods = arbovirus) ◦ Ebola (()strand RNA, enveloped)
▪ hemorrhagic fever
▪ sporadic, severe outbreaks in central Africa
▪ Major epidemic in West Africa
▪ Persontoperson transmission
∙ Amino Acids (Acidic/Basic)
◦ Charged
▪ Arginine (Arg)
▪ Lysine (Lys)
▪ Aspartic acid (Asp)
▪ Glutamic acid (Glu)
◦ Polar
▪ Glutamine (Gln)
▪ Asparagine (Asn)
▪ Histidine (His)
▪ Serine (Ser)
▪ Threonine (Thr)
▪ Tyrosine (Tyr)
▪ Cysteine (Cys)
▪ Tryptophan (Trp)
◦ NonPolar
▪ Alanine (Ala)
▪ Isoleucine (Ile)
▪ Leucine (Leu)
▪ Methionine (Met)
▪ Phenylalanine (Phe)
▪ Valine (Val)
▪ Proline (Pro)
▪ Glycine (Gly)
∙ Gene regulation controls
◦ twocomponent sensorkinase
◦ twocomponent response regulators
◦ the lac operon (lactose operon)
▪ 3 genes produced
∙ lacZ (Bgalactosidase):not having this makes people lactose intolerant ∙ lacY (lactose permase): allows entry of lactose
∙ lacA (thiogalactoside)
▪ When glucose present and lactose absent
∙ no lac operon transcription
∙ Lacl (repressor) is bound to operator
▪ When glucose absent and lactose present
∙ maximum transcription of lac operon
∙ Lacl (repressor) falls off
∙ CRPcAMP complex (activator) binds
▪ Both glucose and lactose present
∙ leaky lac operon transcription
∙ CRP (activator) is inactive without cAMP
∙ Lacl (repressor) falls off due to presence of lactose, so there is no repression ◦ the ara operon
▪ without arabinose
∙ AraC dimer acts as a repressor to block transcription
∙ Binds to site aral1 and araO2
▪ with arabinose
∙ conformation changes and now acts as an activator
∙ Binds to sides aral1 and aral2
∙ this conformation also allows CRPcAMP to bind and further activate transcription
∙ Advantage is AraC can stay associated with this DNA sequence ut change the consequences of binding
◦ trp operon (tryptophan operon)
▪ Cell must make the amino acid tryptophan
∙ Trp biosynthesis requires many proteins transcribed from one operon ∙ when tryptophan is plentiful, cell stops synthesis
▪ Trp repressor (TrpR) must bind tryptophan to bind DNA
∙ opposite f lac repressor, which falls off DNA when it binds allolactose ∙ Tryptophan functions as a “corepressor” with the TrpR repressor protein ▪ Trp operon “attenuation” translation regulates transcription
∙ leader peptide on mRNA encodes 2 tryptophans (in trpL)
◦ here the ribosome acts as a sensor of tryptophan levels
∙ Ribosome binds to mRNA & begins to translate the newly transcribed mRNA ◦ translates leader peptides
◦ ribosome stalls if level of tryptophan is low
∙ stalled ribosome prevents mRNA from forming a transcription terminator, permits formation of “antiattenuator loop”
∙ if tryptophan levels are high, the ribosome does not stall on the leader ◦ this allows the “attenuation loop” to form in the mRNA which will allow transcription termination.
∙ Be able to predict what will occur under different conditions with a gene regulation scenario
∙ Open Reading Frame (ORF)
◦ the part of the reading frame that has the ability to be translated
◦ continuous sequence of codons that has a start codon (AUG) and a stop codon (UAA, UAG, UGA)
∙ Important codons (again)
◦ Start : AUG
◦ Stop : UAA, UAG, UGA
∙ Western Blot
◦ What does it determine?
▪ Size of protein made from gene of interest and amount produced ◦ What is being detected?
▪ Specific proteins under set conditions
▪ Comparative analysis of protein levels
◦ How is it prepared?
▪ Antibody to protein binds to the amino acid sequence
▪ Antirabbit IgG “secondary antibody” binds all antibodies made by rabbits ▪ Secondary antibody linked “conjugated” to an enzyme (alkaline phosphate) ▪ Alkaline phosphatase: color
◦ What components needed for each step?
∙ Relative resistance and sensitivity to environmental stresses
∙ Know
◦ organotroph
▪ definition: organism that uses organic compounds as electron donors ▪ metabolic activity:
▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
◦ lithotroph
▪ definition: organism that uses inorganic compounds as electron donors ▪ metabolic activity:
∙ Nitrification (Nitrogen oxidation) : ammonia or nitrite is electron donor ▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
∙ nitrogen, sulfur
◦ chemotroph
▪ definition:
▪ metabolic activity:
▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
◦ phototroph
▪ definition:
▪ metabolic activity:
▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
◦ heterotroph
▪ definition:
▪ metabolic activity:
▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
◦ autotroph
▪ definition:
▪ metabolic activity:
▪ identify/substrates maybe involved:
∙ Zscheme of light reactions of planttype, oxygenic photosynthesis ◦ products:
◦ How are these used in dark reactions?:
◦ What are the dark reactions?:
∙ Calvin Cycle of CO2 fixation
◦ Basics:
▪ Occurs in Cyanobacteria (purple), phototrophs (lithotrophs), Rubisco homologs appear but their function is unclear, chloroplasts
▪ Also called reductive pentose phosphate cycle
▪ all organisms that fix using this cycle use the enzyme RuBisCO
∙ RibuloseBisphosphate CO2 Reductase/Oxidase
∙ aka Ribulose1,5bisphosphate “carboxylase/oxygenase”
◦ 3 steps
▪ 1: Carboxylation & splitting
∙ Reaction catalyzed by Rubisco
∙ Addition of CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (5 carbon)
∙ Split to 2 molecules of 3phosphoglycerate (3 carbon)
▪ 2: Reduction
∙ Phosphorylate 3phosphoglycerate to 1,3bisphosphoglycerate
∙ Reduce 1,3bisphosphoglycerate to glyceraldehyde3phosphate (G3P) ∙ Similar to step of glycolysis if run backward
▪ 3:Regeneration of ribulose bisphosphate
∙ See figure 15.8 in the book
∙ for every 6 G3P, one is diverted to production of glucose
∙ 5 out of 6 G3P are used to regenerate ribulose 1,3bisphosphate to keep the cycle going
◦ The most important enzyme?
▪ RuBisCO
∙ Other types of CO2 fixation (don’t need to know mechanisms or intermediates) ◦ CO2 Concentrating Mechanism (CCM)
◦ TCA cycle
◦ Reductive acetylCOA pathway
◦ 3Hydroxypropionate cycle
∙ Know order electron passes through mitochondrial electron transport chain ∙ Know TCA cycle intermediates that are used in amino acid formation ◦ Oxaloacetate
◦ Pyruvate
∙ Net yield of ATP and NADH + H+ from 1 cycle of EmbdenMeyerhof pathway (conventional glycolysis)
◦ ATP: 2
◦ NADH + H+: 2
∙ Examples of polyketide antibiotics
∙ Major products of nitrification
◦ NO3
∙ major products of denitrification
◦ Nitrous oxide and Nitrogen
∙ Reaction performed by glutamine synthetase in nitrogen assimilation
∙ The insolubility of which elements severely limits their bioavailability? ∙ Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
◦ Definition:
◦ What causes high BOD?
▪
∙ Environmental bacteria
◦ detoxify:
◦ make more toxic:
∙ Know Definitions
◦ Oligotrophic:
◦ Eutrophic:
◦ Mycorrhizae:
◦ mutualism:
▪ Example:
◦ synergism:
▪ Example:
◦ commensalism:
▪ Example:
◦ amenalism:
▪ Example:
◦ parasitism:
▪ Example:
∙ Gas often produced in ethanolic fermentation:
∙ Major Fermentations
◦ ethanolic:
◦ alkaline:
◦ acidic:
∙ 12D treatment: