Description
Intro and History
1. Microbiology: study of organisms too small to be seen w/the unaided eye a. Include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and algae
b. Important life cycles, food chains, nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis, fermentation
c. Most microorganisms are unicellular
d. Few are pathogenic, decompose waste
e. Microorganisms are crucial, beneficial, harmful ubiquitous 2. Scientific Nomenclature
a. Caroleus Linnaeus
b. Genus species or Genus species
i. Genus: species that differ but have common ancestor
ii. Bacterial species: population of cells w/similar characteristics 1. Strain: groups of cells derived from a single cell
3. Types of Microorganisms
a. Prokaryotes (cells w/o membrane organelles; all bacteria are pro) i. Bacteria
1. All bacteria are unicellular and prokaryotic organisms
ii. Archaea
1. Only survive in unique conditions We also discuss several other topics like The two days of the year with equal day and night hours are called what?
2. Unicellular, prokaryotic
ALL CELLS
HAVE A
CELL
MEMBRANE
a. Methanogens: live under w/o oxygen and convert CO2 to methane
b. Extreme halophiles: salt loving
c. Extreme thermophiles: heat loving and can live under acidic conditions
b. Eukaryotic
i. Fungi
1. Unicellular (yeast) or Multicellular (molds/mushrooms)
ii. Protozoa
1. Exist as free parasites by eating smaller organisms
a. Amoeba and paramecium
iii. Algae
1. Photosynthetic organisms
2. Usually single cell and found in fresh and salt water
c. Viruses
i. Neither pro or euk because it can’t reproduce
ii. Acellular; no membrane
iii. Have only DNA or RNA not both
iv. Obligate intracellular parasite = have t go inside to replicate
v. Bacteriophage = virus that infects bacterial cells
4. Who are some of the important names in microbiology? What are they known for? a. Robert Hooke compound microscope Don't forget about the age old question of What is an economic agent?
b. Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed living organisms
c. Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann cell theory
i. All living organisms are made of cells
ii. Cells are fundamental units of life and carry out basic functions
d. Louis Pasteur
i. Father of microbio
ii. Demonstrated fermentation
iii. Pasteurization (get rid of bad ferments by heating liquid)
iv. Rabbies vaccine
1. Edward Jenner introduced vaccination
2. Pasteur understood that less virulent organisms induced immunity in a host
e. Spontaneous generation (SPG)
i. John Needham ~ boiled nutrient broth grew organisms
ii. Lazzaro Spallanzani ~ heat nutrient broth after sealing no growth
iii. Vital force (oxygen) required
f. Biogenesis Don't forget about the age old question of Three kinds of studies probe brain-behavior relationships.
i. Francesco Redi ~ meat couldn’t make maggots
ii. Louis Pasteur ~ swan neck bottle resolved SPG and introduced aseptic techniques g. Germ Theory of Disease
i. Ignaz Semmelweiss
1. Dec childbirth deaths disinfect hands between patients
ii. Joseph Lister
1. Spraying operating rooms and treating wounds w/aqueous phenol reduced incidence of death
h. Robert Koch
i. Studied bacteria (found what cause anthrax)
ii. Pure culture technique
iii. Koch’s Postulates
1. Same causative agent must be found in every case of disease and not in healthy ones 2. Organism isolated from disease and grown in pure culture
3. Organism found in culture must reproduce same disease in healthy animals
4. Same organism must be reisolated from infected animal
i. Hans Gram ~ gram staining procedure
j. Paul Ehrlich
i. Use of chemicals to destroy specific bacteria w/o damaging host (chemotherapy) ii. Salvarsa: dye that killed syphilis
iii. No “magic bullet”
k. Alexander Fleming
i. Antibiotics
ii. Accidentally discovered antibiotic penicillin
1. Fungus inhibited staph growth
iii. Also discovered Lysosomes could kill bacteria We also discuss several other topics like What is the majoritarian model?
5. What is the golden age of microbiology?
a. 18571914; Pasteur, Lister, Koch and Gram
b. It was the period of the isolation of many disease causing organisms
Chemical Principles
Organic molecules Don't forget about the age old question of What is elasticity and tax incidence?
All contain carbon
C skelton is represented by R
Funcitonal groups
o Hydroxyl: OH
o Amino: NH2
o Carboxyl: COOH
6. What are the 4 major macromolecules? a. Carbohydrates
i. Functions
c. Pentose found in DNA and RNA d. Hexoes found in glucose and fructose
1. Sugars of DNA and RNA
2. Cell wall of bacteria
3. Food reserves and main function to supply cell w/energy
ii. Types
1. Monosaccharides
a. Simple sugar
b. 37 C
2. Disaccharides
a. 2 monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis rx
b. Glycosidic bond
c. Glucose + fructose sucrose
d. Glucose + galactose lactose
e. Isomers: have same chemical but diff structural formula
3. Polysaccharides
a. 8 or more monosaccharides
b. Glycogen: many glucose monomers joined
i. Main energy molecule in animals and some bacteria
c. Cellulose: many glucoses joined but diff linkage
i. Make cell wall
b. Lipids
i. Essential for structure and functions of membranes
ii. Nonpolar, insoluble in water We also discuss several other topics like What is traditional biology?
iii. Have CHO but not 2:1 (H:O ratio)
iv. Functions in energy storage
v. Types
1. Simple Lipids
a. Fats or triglycerides
b. Contain alcohol glycerol and fatty acids
i. Fatty acids long chain of hydrocarbons; even # of C and COOH
c. Ester bond linkage
d. Saturated fatty acid: have maximum # of H attached to carbon (animal fats) e. Unsaturated fatty acid: don’t have max # of H double bonds (vegetable oils)
2. Complex Lipids
a. Contain S, P or N
b. Phospholipids most common and found in membranes
c. Glycerol + 2 FA + PO4 attached to organic compound
3. Phospholipids
a. Hydrophobic region = tail
b. Hydrophilic = head
c. Make up lipid bilayer of cytoplasmic membrane
4. Steroids
a. Complex lipids w/fused rings (cholesterol, vit. D)
b. Found mainly in plasma membrane of euk cells
c. Mycoplasma only bacteria w/sterols in plasma membrane
d. 4 carbon rings w/ 1 OH group attached to 1 ring
c. Proteins
i. 50% of cell’s weight
ii. CHON and sometimes P, S
iii. Essential for structure and function of cell
1. Enzymes, transport, hormones, structural and carrier molecules, toxins antibodies iv. Amino acids are building blocks of proteins joined by peptide bond
v. Structures
1. Primary: linear
2. Secondary: folding
3. Tertiary: 3D
4. Quaternary: several folded polypeptide chains
vi. Denaturation: exposure to excessive heat, acid, alcohol or disinfectants
1. Destroys function of protein
d. Nucleic acids
i. Storage and expression of genetic info
ii. DNA and RNA
1. Made of polymers of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester
iii. Made of nitrogenous base (Thymine, adenine, cytosine, guanine, uracil)
1. Pentose and phosphate groups
iv. DNA
1. Double stranded helix (Watson and Crick)
a. Complimentary and antiparallel
2. AT and GC
v. RNA
1. Single strand
2. Ribose as sugar
3. AU and GC
4. mRNa, rRNA and tRNA
e. ATP
i. Primary energy source of the cell; high phosphate bonds
ii. Adenosine: adenine + ribose + 3 phosphates
iii. ATP ADP + Pi
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
EUK
• True, membranebound nucleus
• DNA organized into chromosomes
• DNA associated with basic proteins
• Membranebound organelles
• Larger and more complex than prokaryotes
• SIZE: 10100 um in diameter
• Microorganisms: Algae, Fungi, Protozoa
• Other: Higher Plants and Animals
7. 8 diff between pro and euk (look @ euk cells slides 31/32)
etc(E) inn mito; (P) plsma membrane
8. What are organelles? Name a few and know their functions.
a. Flagella: locomotion in wave matter; few per cell; protozoa and algae
b. Cilia: move foreign material in clockwise/counter matter; hundreds; protozoa and animal c. Cell wall: maintain shape of cell and protection; made of cellulose; no peptidoglycan not susceptible to penicillin
d. Glycocalyx: strengthen membrane, attach cells, cell recognition
e. Plasma (cytoplasmic) membrane: external covering of cell; bilayer; integral and peripheral proteins; glycol proteins = cell surface receps
i. Endocytosis: internalize extracellular particles into cell
1. Phagocytosis: engulf particles
2. Pinocytosis: engulf liquid
ii. Exocytosis: externalize particles out of cell
f. Ribosomes: site of protein synthesis
i. Cytoplasmic 80s = 60s + 40s
ii. Mitochondrion 70s = 50s + 30s
g. Cytoplasm: inside plasma and outside nucleus; contains organelles
h. Nucleus: largest internal; contains almost all DNA; double membrane; nuclear pores = communication w/cytoplasm
i. Nucleolus = site of rRNA synthesis
j. ER = synthesis of proteins; transport new synthesized molecules to other sites via secretory vesicles; have ribosomes attached
i. SR = synthesis of lipids; no ribosomes
k. Golgi apparatus: in cytoplasm; receives and transports new synthesized lipids and proteins from ER via secretory vesicles
l. Mitochondria: cellular respiration = energy production; replicates autonomously i. Outer membrane: smooth and has sterols
ii. Inner membrane: folded and no sterols
1. Cristae: inc surface area
m. Chloroplasts: site of photosynthesis; 70s ribosomes; replicates autonomously
n. Lysosomes: contain hydrolytic enzymes that break down engulfed bacteria (phagocytosis and in WBCs)
o. Vacuoles: membrane bound cavity for storage
p. Chromosomes: role in cell division; contain DNA
i. Centrioles: help in the formation of the spindle fibers that separate the chromosomes during cell division (mitosis)
PRO
9. Size, shape and arrangement
a. Size and shape
i. Spherical = coccus
1. Coccibacillus (short rods)
ii. Rod = bacillus
iii. Spiral = spirillum, vibrio and spirochete
b. Arrangement
i. Cocci
1. Single
2. Diplo
3. Tetrad
4. Sarcinae
5. Strepto
6. staphylo
ii. Bacillus
1. Single
2. Diplo
3. Cocco
10. Generic Pro Cell
a. Outside
i. Glycocalyx (+ve and ve)
1. Surrounds cell; polysaccharide, polypeptide sticky or viscous
2. Capsule if firmly attached or a slime if loosely attached
a. Virulence factor = more pathogenic; attachment to surface, protection from
phagocytosis, may be used as food source
i. 1. Capsules facilitate microbes to attach to cell much easier
ii. 2. Capsule makes it harder for WBC to ingest microbes aka
antiphagocytic; delays or inhibits
3. Biofilms
a. Clumps of cells that are attached to surfaces = biofilm – community that
allows to live together bc of extracellular substance made of glycocalyx
material harder to get rid of
i. Allows for communication and attachment
ii. Either harmful or beneficial
ii. Flagella (+ve and ve)
1. Motility and not in all bacteria; usually in rods and spirals
2. Taxis: movement toward or away from environment
a. Toward = clockwise
b. Away = counter clockwise
c. Chemotaxis, phototaxis
3. Structures
a. Filament: made of protein flagellin
b. Hook: point of attachment for filament
c. Basal body: anchors filament and hook to plasma membrane; 2 rings in +ve,
4 rings in ve
iii. Axial filaments
1. Bundles of fibrils between that start at the ends under an outer sheath and spiral
around the cell; internal flagella; corkscrew motion
iv. Fimbriae (virulence factor) (ve only)
1. Function = attachment to cell surfaces; role in forming biofilms
2. Made of protein pilin
v. Pili (ve only)
1. bacteria to transfer of DNA/gene between cells under the same family
a. Ex: bacteria may have an antibiotic gene
vi. Cell Wall (+ve and ve)
1. Function: protection from osmotic pressure (water going in and ruptures cell) and keeps shape of cell
+ve cell wall
o + have a thick layer and – have a thin layer
o Peptidoglycan (murein)
vii. 1. Backbone (glycan portion)
1. Carbon 1:4:1 connection
2. NAG NAM alteration (amino sugars)
viii. 2. Short tetra peptide units
1. 4 amino acids spanning from every NAM
ix. 3. Cross bridges that connect tetrapeptides
1. Provide strength and rigidity
2. Can be destroyed by penicillin
3. Techioc acid only in gram + cells
Gram ( – )cell wall
o 1. Plasma membrane
o 2. Cell wall
x. Thin layer Peptidoglycan floating in periplasmic space [only in gram – cell]
1. Contains digestive chemicals/enzymes that destroy things that try to enter the cell xi. LPS
1. Lipid A (endotoxin) = the embedded part
a. Made of lipids
b. High fever + shock if enters blood stream (endotoxin)
c. Released from bacteria into bloodstream when they die bc of nutrients, WBC, or antibiotics
2. Core PS = tail
3. O PS (O antigens) = end of tail
a. Made of sugars
b. An antigen that distinguishes diff species of gram () bacteria
xii. Cytoplasmic (plasma) membrane
1. Pro don’t have sterols and euk have sterol (cholesterol); except mycoplasmas don’t have a cell wall but have sterols bc they give it more rigidity
b. Function
i. Selective permeable barrier protection of cytoplasma
ii. Transportation of molecules
iii. Enzymes
iv. Proteins that help with biosynthesis and DNA replication
v. Site for electron transport chain of bacterial cells
1. Embedded in plasma membrane
2. Production of ATP; bacteria needs atp (all cells need atp)
a. Euk mitochondria in electron transport chain
b. Pro ETC in cytoplasm of membrane
c. Inside
i. Cytoplasm
1. Dna is floating in the cytoplasm bc no membrane
2. Mostly made of water
3. Nucleoid – nucleus of pro cells bc no nuclear membrane
a. Chromosomes
i. Pro have 1 chromosome that are circular
1. Made of dna, helix
2. No histones
ii. Euk have more than 1 (23 pairs)
1. Chromosomes are linear
ii. Plasmids (in some)
1. Extra chromosomes on their own
2. Extra circular helix strand of dna
3. Don’t carry important genetic info for the cell to survive
a. Carry extra genes that give the cell an edge
i. (EX: antibiotic resistance)
iii. Ribosomes
1. All cells have ribosomes
2. Site for protein synthesis
3. Density and thickness
a. Pro = 70s; (30s + 50s)
i. When a small and large unit, a part of the large unit is chipped off
b. Euk = 80s
iv. Endospores (in some bacteria) Name 2 genera that produce them
1. Virulence factor of bacteria
2. Structures for survival
3. Metabolically inactive (won’t be hindered by lack of food, etc.)
4. Only produced by (gram positive) Clostridium and Bacillus
5. Resistant and resilient to extreme environmental condition
6. Not a reproductive mechanism; called sporulation
a. 1
b. 6a. When conditions are good endospore will return to its active form
7. Bacillus anthrax anthrax
8. Clostridium tetanus tetanus
9. Will reproduce when under threat germinate
v. Inclusions and granules
1. Reserves for metabolic products
11. Name a few virulence factors of bacteria.
a. Biofilm/glycocalyx
b. Fimbriae
c. Capsule
d. Endospores (prokaryotes)
12. What are differences between ribosomes of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells? a. Euk
i. Larger (80s)
ii. In cytoplasm and around ER, mitochondria and chloroplasts
b. pro
i. smaller (70s)
ii. free floating in cytoplasm
13. List 8 differences between grampositive bacteria and gramnegative bacteria. (Look @ prok slide 67)
Classification
14. How are organisms classified?
a. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
King Philip Came Over For Good Sex
15. What are the five kingdoms? Name organisms that belong to these kingdoms. a. Plantae: trees, plants, flowers
b. Fungi: fungi
c. Anamalia: animals, human
d. Protista: protozoa,
e. Monera, eubacteria and archaebacteria
16. What are Woese’s domains?
a. Eukarya: protozoa, plants, animals and fungi
b. Eubacteria: all pathogenic and non true bacteria
c. Archaeacteria: live extreme environements; no peptidoglycan
i. Methanogens: anaerobes, convert CO2 to methane
ii. Halophiles: salt loving
iii. Hyperthermophiles: heat loving
17. What are the differences between Archaea and Bacteria domains? Name the Archae groups. a. Methanogens: live under w/o oxygen and convert CO2 to methane
b. Extreme halophiles: salt loving
c. Extreme thermophiles: heat loving
d. Psychrophiles: cold loving
18. What are the groups of microorganisms?
a. Bacteria, archaea, protozoa, algae, fungi, viruses, and multicellular animal parasites 19. What are viruses? Where are they classified?
a. Obligate intracellular parasites
b. Not classified in the 5 kingdom system bc NOT CELLS
c. Ribosomal RNA
20. What are fungi?
a. Get their food by absorbing nutrients from their surroundings. Plays a role in decomposition 21. What is lysozyme? What does it do?
a. enzyme that catalyzes the destruction of the cell walls of certain bacteria
Microbial Growth and Microbial Metabolism
Microbial Growth
About growth
o Increase in number not size
o Bacteria reproduce asexually (binary fission)
o Colonies = larger number of microbes from 1 organism
22. What are the growth requirements of bacteria?
a. Obligate vs facultative
i. Ob: must have the specific environment
ii. Fa: able to adjust to fluctuations
b. Physical requirements
i. pH
ii. Temp
iii. Osmotic pressure
c. Biochemical requirements
i. Carbon
ii. Nitrogen
1. Used for: amino and nucleic acids and proteins and ATP
2. From: protein breakdown, ammonium ions and nitrate ions
3. Nitrogen fixation: bacteria converts nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3). The bacteria that do this are either free living bacteria or associated with plants or other organisms
iii. Sulfur
1. Used: amino acids (cysteine, Methionine), vitamins (thiamine, biotin)
2. From: sulfur containing compunds, inorganic sulfate salts
iv. Phosphorus
1. Used: Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA), ATP, phospholipids
2. From: PO43
v. Trace elements and organic GF
1. Essential
2. Vitamins, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines
23. What are phototrophs, chemotrophs, autotrophs, and heterotrophs?
a. Autotrophs: obtain C from CO2
i. Phototrophs: get energy from sunlight
ii. Chemotrophs: get energy from inorganic compounds
b. Heterotrophs: obtain C from organic compounds like protein, carbs and lipids
24. What is a thermophile, mesophile, psychrophile, halophile, and acidophile, alkaliphiles? What’s the optimum pH? What’s a buffer?
a. Psychrophiles: cold loving 015°C
b. Mesophiles: moderate temp 1047°C
c. Thermophiles: heat loving 4080°C
d. Halophiles: salt loving
e. Acidophiles: grow under low pH
f. Alkaliphiles: grow under high pH
g. 6.57.5 for most bacteria
h. Buffer: stabilizes pH of a solution; can take/donate H+ to solution
25. Explain the different osmotic pressures and plasmolysis
a. Hypertonic: more solutes outside than inside shrivel
i. Plasmolysis: if a cell is put in a hypertonic the water will move out of the cell (plasmosysis) and the cell will shrink and stop dividing (quiz Q)
b. Hypotonic: less solutes outside than inside burst
c. Isotonic: equal amount of solutes out and inside nothing
26. Why is oxygen toxic?
a. Useful: aerobic respiration final e acceptor
b. Harmful: strong oxidizer
c. Combined w/H2O produces toxic byproducts
d. some organisms don’t have the enzymes to breakdown O2 radical
i. organisms that can live in the presence of O2 must have most or all of the 3 enzymes: 1. superoxide dismutase
2. catalase
3. peroxidase
a. obligate aerobe
b. obligate anaerobe
ii. Toxic/Reactive byproducts
1. Highly unstable allowing them to steal electrons from nearby molecules
2. Singlet Oxygen
3. Superoxide free radical (O2.)
4. Peroxide (O22)
5. Hydroxyl
27. What are the difference between strict aerobes, facultative anaerobes, and strict anaerobes? (Look @ microbial growth slides 18/19)
28. What is binary fission? What is growth time? Why do we plot population growth on a logarithmic and not an arithmetic scale?
a. Asexual reproduction
i. 1. Mother cell will grow
ii. 2. Replicate chromosome
iii. 3. Make more membrane and cell wall
iv. 4. Divide into 2 identical bacteria
b. Growth time: time required for a generation of cells to divide
i. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
1. Difficult to plot cell numbers bc double in number every division; Will usually use a log format when numbers get large
2. Time required to undergo binary fission (generation or doubling time)
a. Depends on environment
b. Depends on organism
c. Minutes to hours (usually less than 1hr)
29. What are the phases of growth? How are they different and what happens in each phase? (look @ microbial growth slide 39)
Lag
o Inc in cell size, inc metabolic activity, sensitive to physical and chemical damage Log
o Max growth and cell division (cells double and size is decreased little), inc metabolic act, sensitive
Stationary
o Growth rate decreases and stops; # of new cells = # of dead cells, nutrient depletion, metabolic byproducts, endospores produced
Death
o Whole culture dies slowly then exponentially
30. What are biofilms? How are they different from planktonic bacteria? Know some of their general characteristics.
a. Most microbes live in communities vs alone
b. Starts as a 1 planktonic organisms and Needs a solid surface: plastic, rubber, metal c. Produce a sticky layer called the extra cellular matrix (made of proteins and polysaccharides and DNA) for communication quorum sensing (turns off/on certain genes)
31. Make sure you know how to calculate microbial growth using the formula.
Mf = Mi x 2n
M f= final number of bacteria
M i= initial number of bacteria
n = number of generations
move to left = inc #
move to right = dec #
Microbial Metabolism
Microbial metabolism = study of complex biochemical reactions of simplest microbes 32. What are enzymes? What is a catalyst?
a. Enzymes: substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction.
b. Catalysts: Biological catalysts that INCREASE rate of reaction by LOWERING the activation energy w/o them being used up in the reaction
c. Activation energy: amount of collision energy needed to start
33. List three factors that affect enzyme activity.
a. Temperature
i. Inc T inc rate
ii. Too high T denature
b. pH
i. [H+] concentration inc w/dec pH
ii. State of proteins may alter structure
c. Substrate concertation
i. velocity of reaction inc until saturation
34. What are oxidation – reduction reactions? Be able to identify an oxidation – reduction reaction. What compound is oxidized or reduced?
a. The transfer of electrons
b. Oxidation = loss of electrons
i. Reactions produce energy
ii. Donor becomes OXIDIZED
c. Reduction = gain of electrons
i. Reactions gain energy
ii. Acceptor becomes REDUCED
d. Redox reactions must be coupled
i. Can’t have free e “floating” around
ii. Must have an electron DONOR and ACCEPTOR
iii. May use a CARRIER to transfer the electron
e. DEHYROGENATION REACTIONS
i. Electron (e) + Proton (H+) = H atom
35. What are the differences between catabolism and anabolism?
a. Metabolism = Catabolism + Anabolism
b. Catabolism = reactions that breakdown large molecules and release energy
i. Use H2O to break chemical bonds
ii. Glucose H2O + CO2
c. Anabolism = reactions that combine smaller molecules using energy
i. Use dehydration synthesis to join bonds
ii. Amino acids proteins
36. List three main ways that ATP is generated by in living cells.
a. Substrate level phosphorylation
i. Direct transfer of high E PO4 (~P) to ADP
1. ~ = high E bond to PO4
2. Substrate ~P + ADP Substrate + ATP
ii. Phosphoenolpyruvate + ADP Pyruvate + ATP
b. Oxidative level phosphorylation
i. Electrons donated by oxidation of high E macromolecules are transferred to a series of electron carriers
1. NAD+ NADH
2. NADP+ NADPH
ii. Electron transport chain (ETC)
1. Prokaryotes (plasma membrane)
2. Eukaryotes (mitochondrial inner membrane)
iii. FINAL ELECTRON ACCETOR = OXYGEN
iv. Energy required to phosphorylate ADP to generate ATP is coupled to the energy released by oxidation of NADH NAD+
c. Photophosphorylation
i. Only in photosynthetic cells (plants, algae)
ii. Chlorophyll traps light energy to make energy ATP from sun
37. What is carbohydrate metabolism? Which is the most common monosaccharide? a. Carbohydrate metabolism: Breakdown of carbohydrates to yield an energy rich compound called ATP through:
i. Aerobic respiration: oxidation of glucose (lose electrons) where the final electron acceptor is O2 (most efficient more ATP) (alcohol and sugar)
ii. Fermentation: oxidation of glucose whereby the final electron acceptor is an organic compound
iii. Anaerobic fermentation: oxidation of glucose where an inorganic compound is the final electron acceptor other than
b. Glucose is the most common monosaccharide
38. What is the difference between aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, and fermentation? Which is more efficient?
a.
b. Aerobic respiration bc it will give the most ATP per input energy source
39. What are the differences between acid and alcohol fermentation?
a. During ethyl alcohol fermentation, the pyruvate molecules are broken down into ethyl alcohol molecules and carbon dioxide molecules, pyruvic acid loses carbon
b. During lactic acid fermentation, the pyruvate molecules are broken down into lactic acid molecules only, directly receives electrons from NADH
40. Where does electron transport occur in bacteria and in eukaryotic cells?
a. Prokaryotes (plasma membrane)
b. Eukaryotes (mitochondrial inner membrane)
41. What macromolecules other than carbohydrates are energy rich?
a. Lipids, proteins, CHOs
42. What are glycolysis, Kreb’s, and electron transport chain? What is chemiosmosis? How is ATP generated by that way? Understand the overall pathways. (Look @ microbial metabolism slide 56, 57, 64, 73)