Description
Psych week 3
9/17/18
Sensation and perception reading
● Sensation and perception are the most important to psychology ○ Sight, hearing, taste etc. → all help us take in the world around us
○ Converts realworld info into electrical stimuli that gets interpreted by the brain
● The way we interpret the information is our perception on the world So what’s the difference between the two?
● The physical process that our senses undergo to respond to the natural outside world is sensation
○ Feeling the wind on your face
○ Hearing a horn honking
○ Tasting the sourness from a lemon
■ This engagement is called transduction
● The psychological process → making sense of the world around us, is perception
○ Smelling cookies and that reminds you of someone making cookies for you
○ Hearing a song and that reminding you of a memory
What makes our senses work?
● The ability to detect needs a minimal amount of stimulation
○ This is called the absolute threshold
■ Differential threshold→ the smallest difference needed to differentiate between two different stimuli
● Just noticeable difference
○ Weber’s Law → idea that a bigger stimuli needs
a bigger difference in order to be noticed
● In order to measure absolute threshold we use signal detection ○ Presents a stimuli at varying intensities to see which level the participant can reliably detect a stimuli
○ Correctly indicating a stimuli is called a hit failing to do so is called a miss. ○ Indicating a sound was heard when it wasn’t is called a false alarm but indicating a sound wasn’t heard when there wasn’t a sound is correct rejection
● Humans perceive things in different ways
If you want to learn more check out Intentional manipulation of financial statements to create a facade of a company's financial health.
Don't forget about the age old question of Why do we need research designs?
○ Bottom up processing → little things are used to make the big picture
○ Top down processing → look at the big picture then the little things
● Sensory adaptation→ decrease in sensitivity to a particular stimuli after constant stimulation.
Vision
● Vision is actually light bouncing off an object into our eye
○ Light enters through the pupil Don't forget about the age old question of Who was Eugène Viollet-Le-Duc and what role did he play in promoting the Gothic Revival?
■ Pupil regulates the amount of light that goes into the eye by
contracting in a lot of light and dilating (getting bigger) in dim light
○ Light passes through the lens which focuses an image on the retina→ a thin layer of cells at the back of the eye
○ From the retina light gets converted into electrical signals by
photoreceptors
■ Rods → black and white used for peripheral vision used more at night
■ cones → colored in blue, red and green used in the day ● Highest concentration in the fovea → central region
of focus
○ It passes through the thalamus and then goes to the primary visual cortex ○ Damage can to areas can cause agnosia→ losses the ability to receive visual stimuli
○ Don't forget about the age old question of There are two types of cells?
● The image goes to both eyes through this process
○ However through this we end up having binocular disparity → which gives us a slightly different angle which provides us with perception of 3D space → binocular vision
The Brain
● Responsible for all behaviors, thoughts and experiences
○ Must be implemented through the brain
● Human cognition is limited
○ If one behavior uses up most of the resource there is not enough resource left for another behavior
● The brain uses oxygen and glucose found in the blood in order to function as well as 20% of the calories we consume If you want to learn more check out What are the eukaryotic cells
?
● Has 100 billion neurons
● When one neuron fires, it suppresses the firing of other nearby neurons. How is the brain divided
● The brain is divided into three parts
○ The brain stem, cerebellum, cerebral hemispheres,
■ Brain stem is the trunk of the brain → regulates breathing,
heart rate and digestion
■ Cerebellum “small brain” → critical for movement and
posture
■ Cerebral hemispheres → responsible for our cognitive
abilities and conscious experience.
● Holds the cerebral cortex and accompanying white matter
● Has the subcortical structures being the basal ganglia,
amygdala, and hippocampal formation.
■ Cerebral cortex is the largest part of the brain and most visible
● Has two spheres
● The folds and grooves of the cortex are called gyri and sulci
■
● The two hemispheres are divided into 4 lobes
○ occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal lobe
○ Occipital responsible for vision
○ Temporal lobe involved in auditory processing, memory, and multisensory integration
○ Parietal lobe has the somatosensory → body sensation cortex and structures for visual attention.
○ Frontal lobe has the motor cortex and and structures for motor planning, language, judgment, and decisionmaking. If you want to learn more check out Which market structure has no competition between firm?
● The basal ganglia are critical to voluntary movement and as such make contact with the cortex, the thalamus, and the brain stem.
● The amygdala and hippocampal formation are part of the limbic system ○ The amygdala and hippocampal formation are part of the limbic system So what’s the difference?
● Both hemispheres are responsible for sensory and motor function. They are connected by white matter called the corpus callosum
○ However they function with contralateral representation.
■ If you need to move your right hand its the left side of your brain that is sending the command
○ Other functions are lateralized and stay in one hemisphere for example most right handed people have language controlled on the left side of the brain
○ People do exist who do not have the two hemispheres connected at all and they are called split brain patients
Gray vs white matter
● The gray matter is composed of the neuronal cell bodies
○ the cell bodies → soma contain the genes of the cell and are responsible for metabolism which keep the cell alive and
synthesizing proteins.
● The white matter is composed of the axons of the neurons, and, in particular, axons that are covered with a sheath of myelin the fatty tissue that surround → the cell
○ Axons are vital for cell communication because they conduct the electrical signals
Studying the human brain
● Converging evidence→ strongest type of evidence → similar findings reported from multiple studies that used different studies
● Phrenology → one of the first organized attempts to study the brain in the 19th century
● Neuroanatomy → dissection of the brain in humans or animals ○ Used since 340 BC by Aristotle
● Changing the brain
○ Researchers use lesions ( cuts in the brain ) to remove parts of the brain in animals to observe how it affects the animal
● Neuroimagery
○ Positron emission tomography (PET) → records the blood flow of the brain detects the radioactive substance that is injected into the bloodstream of the participant just before or while he or she is performing some task
○ Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) → relies on the blood flow of the brain ,measures the changes in oxygen levels in the blood and does not require any substance to be injected into the
participant.
○ EEG → measures the electrical activity of the brain
○ DOI → shines infrared light into the brain, and measures the light that comes back out. Relies on the fact that the properties of the light change when it passes through oxygenated blood, or when it encounters active neurons.
Wednesday Class lecture 9/19/18
The brain → national geographic the brain
● Martha Farah budding scientist that studied the brain
● Brain science → “Big science”
● Part of the nervous system that coordinates the body's functions What are we looking at today? Materialism: Brain makes mind
● Largest section is the cerebrum ¾ of the brain
○ Controls learning, reasoning and speech
● Second largest part is the cerebellum
○ Carries signals to the brain and spinal cord
● Brain stem controls respiration, digestion, sleep
○ Pons
○ Midbrain
○ Medulla oblongata
● Diencephalon
○ Thalamus
○ Hypothalamus, pituitary gland
How does the brain relate to the mind
● Rene Descartes → “I think therefore I am”
○ Mental events and psychical events have no relationship→ Dualism
○ We don’t believe that anymore
● Materialism
○ What we actually believe in
○ Mind and brain have a casual relationship
○ Mental event ( good smell) → physical event ( neurons fire that something smells good) → mental event ( sight of cookies) → psychical event ( neurons fire and associate the good smell with coming off of the cookies)
■ Medicine effects
● Placebo vs. real medicine
○ SSRI (physical event) → I feel better ( mental
event) → medicine helps
● The mind is what the brain does!
○ Brains make minds
Questions involving materialism
● Don’t I have free will?
○ Yes, you choose what you want to mentally experience.
● How does the outside affect the inside
○
● Can “I “ be tinkered with
○ Yes with certain medications but not all the time
○ Yes with meditation you can change neural pathways.
Debates about the brain
● Trepanation 3500 BCE
○ First tool used to study the brain
○ Hole inside of the skull to see what the brain was doing
● Brain center of mentation?
○ It was debated with the heart
○ After much debate the brain won the argument
● Tissue vs. Ventricles
○ Idea that the brain was floating around in the brain with a liquid that came from ventricles
○ It wasn’t until late 17th century that people acknowledged tissues ● What makes a cell an cell?
○ Camillo Golgi → isolated neurons to see the actual neuron and see the cell body
● Does the brain function locally or globally
○ Locally
○ Sponge vs. bicycle
■ Sponge takes up water even if you cut part of it off
■ Bicycle each part has a separate function but if you cut off certain parts like a wheel you can’t use it, if you cut off a wheel you can still somewhat use it
■ The brain is like a bike depending on where you cut it is how much the brain will still work
● Why is localized function so important
○ Multiple regions imply multiple cognitive processes
○ Overlapping brain regions implies overlapping cognitive processes ● Take home message: Brian function is localized
Methods of localization
● Accident
● Manipulation
● Noninvasive measurement
● Franz Gall → Phrenology
○ Made the assumption that every part of your brain is responsible for your personality
○ Thought the brain was like a muscle and if you worked the muscle it would grow and cause bumps in your skull
○ He would look for the bumps to see what bumps led to certain traits ○ Wrong→ bumps and traits
○ Right→ Localization
● Phineas Gage → Accident
○ Man who was working got a rod that went through his brain and through his skull, he walked himself to the doctor and when they removed it he survived but his personality was forever changed.
○ Learned that the frontal lobe or frontal cortex was in charge of personality ● Brain Surgery
○ Lobotomy used as a tool to punish once again showing the frontal cortex and lobe are essential for personality
● Nonhuman subjects→ manipulation
● Electrical stimulation → Manipulation
○ Wilder Penfield → Surgical mapping
■ Would stimulate certain parts of the brain and ask how they felt ● Stimulating parts of the hippocampus and the patient
remembering the smell of burnt toast
● Electrical situation helped map the brain specifically
the somatosensory cortex → majority in the parietal
lobe some in the frontal lobe → controls sensitivity of
senses
● Measurement
○ EEG → electrodes are placed on the brain to help map what structure of functioning
○ fMRI → used mostly for psychology #1 method → relies on blood and oxygen levels getting to the brain
○ PET → used mostly for psychology → more invasive
● The brain has plasticity
Brain organization
● Dimensions of brain organization
○ Luxuries (things that are uniquely human) are at the top level and necessities (essential for survival) are at the bottom level
■ The Levels from bottom to top
● Necessities → basic life functions → breathing, heart
rate, pain etc.
● Basic mostor programs
● Sensory information
● Emotion, motivation, simple judgement
● Voluntary action, complex judgement, symbolic thought
○ All of this takes place in cerebral cortex in which there are 4 different lobes ■ Occipital lobe→ processes vision
■ Parietal lobe → attention, orienting objects in space,
counting
■ Temporal lobe → behind your ears → responsible for
hearing (olfaction), language, object recognition
■ Frontal → reasoning,language, executive control
○ Bilateral symmetry → the left side of the brain is responsible for motor movement s in the right side and vice versa
○ Left → Linguistic analysis (grammar)
○ Right → Paralinguistic analysis (tone)
Key ideas
● Mind and brain are two descriptions of the same thing
● Brain function is localized and lateralized, but not simply or strictly ● The brain is organized hierarchy
● Brain systems can operate independently and be at odds with each other. Recitation
9/19/18
Scientific method is split into two
● Observation (measurement)
○ Measurement
■ Starts with a concept of what your trying to measure
■ Operational Definition: something that can help you measure and define the concept
○ Samples
○ Examples
● Explanation
○ Correlation
○ Causation
Validity
● Asking the right questions to get accuracy
● Construct Validity: the tendency for a clear relationship between the abstract concept and the operational definition.
● Convergent Validity: The tendency for operational definitions to be related to other operational definitions
○ Positive feelings= life satisfaction
● Predictive Validity: Tendency for measurement to predict a future behavior. ○ Data that infers a future result
○ Ex: the SAT or ACT predicted how we would do in college
Reliability
● Getting the right/ consistent results from whatever you used to measure ● Reliability: how likely an instrument or measure will give the same result every time you use it.
○ Constant results
● Discriminant reliability: how likely an instrument of measure will give different results for different things.
A good definition has an construct validity and convergent validity A good measure has reliability and discriminant reliability
Population vs. Sample
● Population: entire group
○ Every 5 year old
● Sample: part of entire group ; the subset
○ 5 year olds in NYC
Both mean and variability must be accounted for in psychological research. Observer Bias vs.Subject Bias
Correlation does not equal Causation.
Could be an issue of directionality or a third factor
Statistical Analysis
● When we examine a data set, we look for trends and patterns ● Questons to ask
○ What causes these patterns
○ How reliably can we abstract the patterns from our data to the real world ● Experimenter expectations → observation bias
● Nature of participants
● Sampling methods
● Random error
Randomness
We can account for randomness by applying a probability model ● Pvalue: how likely is it that we see the same results f random echance is the only factor
○ Always want a super low Pvalue
● Phackin when someone uses the wrong stattistical test to get a lower Pvalue