Description
Study Guide for Exam 2
Coverage: chapters 2 (sections 1013), 3, 4(sections 13)
Chapter 2:
Periodic table –Mendeleev’s periodic table was organized so that elements with similar properties were in the same vertical columns; the modern periodic table lists elements based on atomic number
o Periods: rows
o groups (families): columns
main group elements (A)
transition & inner transition elements (B)
metals (left): low ionization energies (easier to lose electrons), small
electron affinities (don’t like to add electrons), tend to form cations
nonmetals (right): high ionization energies (harder to lose electrons), large negative electron affinities (like to add electrons), tend to form anions
Don't forget about the age old question of How did kepler challenge the earth centered model?
metalloids (along the line): elements exhibit both metallic and nonmetallic properties
alkali metals (Li, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr): low ionization energies and chemical reactive; H has nonmetallic characteristics due to small size
Electron configuration – description of orbitals containing electrons (1s22s22p63s2); orbital diagrams are the representation of orbitals and half arrows that represent electrons) o Rules
Aufbar’s Principle: electrons occupy orbitals of low energy first (1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p…) We also discuss several other topics like When are polygraph tests illegal to use?
Ground state = electrons occupy the lowest energy level
Excited state = electrons occupy other orbitals
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle: one orbital can only hold two electrons
Hund’s Rule: electrons in the same subshell occupy orbitals one at a time before they are paired
o Condensed electron configuration: take the noble gas from row above and continue electron configuration
o valence electrons: for main group elements, electrons in high energy levels (number of valence electrons = group number for main group elements) **Chromium and Copper have exceptions!!
o core electrons: electrons in lower energy levels
o main group elements (sblock and pblock), transition elements (dblock), inner transition elements (fblock)
Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) – net (positive) charge attracting electrons; increases from left to right across a row, and does not change going down a group (more protons = stronger pull on electrons)
Atomic radii – the covalent atomic radius is one half of the distance between covalently bonded nuclei; increases in going down a group (orbital size increases) and decreases going from left to right (effective nuclear charge increases so valence electrons are pulled closer to nucleus)
Ionization energy: the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of a gaseous atom or ion (requires the input of energy to remove an electron); the lower the IE, the easier it is to remove an electron and the more electrons removed, the harder they become to be removed (IE1 < IE2 < IE3) Don't forget about the age old question of Why was the american revolution considered a process instead of an event?
o The first ionization decreases in going down a group (electrons being removed are farther from the nucleus) and increases in going left to right across a row (effective nuclear charge is greater)
Exception: Oxygen’s ionization is lower than Nitrogen’s. Why? If you look at the orbital notation, you will find that Nitrogen’s 2p orbitals are
half filled meaning it will be harder to remove those electrons
Electron affinity – the energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom or ion
o Become more negative when going from left to right (halogens have the most negative electron affinities?); no trend in groups
Chapter 3:
Chemical bonds – force that holds atoms together in a compound
Representing molecular compounds –
o chemical formula: shows the type and number of each element in a compound o empirical formula: shows relative number of each element in a compound o structural formula: shows the way atoms are bonded (think Lewis structure) space filling model: indicates relative sizes of atoms as well as their
relative orientation in the molecule
ball and stick method: 3D model using spheres and rods
Octet rule: a chemical bond is the sharing or transfer of electrons to attain a stable electron configuration for the bonding atoms; elements seek to obtain noble gas electron configuration If you want to learn more check out What do exponential functions solve?
Ionic bonds and ionic compounds: transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal; electrostatic attractive force between oppositely charged ions
o Predicting charges of ions and formulas of ionic compounds
For most main group elements, the charge of cation = group number and the charge of anion = group number 8
Keep in mind ions are charged particles, but ionic compounds are electrically neutral! o Electron configuration of ions
o Sizes of ions: influences structure and stability of ionic solids and it is determined by measuring the distance between ion centers
The size of the parent ion and its position in the periodic table influence the size of an ion
Cations are smaller than their parents, while anions are larger than their parents
o isoelectronic ions: ions with the same number of electrons
size decreases with an increasing nuclear charge
o Lattice energy: energy that takes place when separated gaseous ions are packed together to form an ionic solid
k (Q1Q2 / r)
compounds with smaller ions and higher charges have higher lattice
energies
Covalent bonds and molecular compounds: the sharing of electrons between two atoms (interaction between nonmetals); covalently bonded atoms compose a molecule = molecular compounds; ionic compounds form when cations and anions are bonded together by ionic bonds If you want to learn more check out What is teshik, tash?
o Localized electron (LE) bonding model (pairs of electrons on an atom = lone pairs and electron pairs found in the space between atoms = bonding pairs)
Description of valence electron arrangement in the molecule using Lewis structures
Prediction of geometry of the molecule using valence shell electron pair repulsion model
Description of the type of atomic orbitals used by the atoms to share
electrons or hold lone pairs
o Polar covalent bond: electrons are unequally shared
o Nonpolar covalent bond: electrons are equally shared Don't forget about the age old question of When was the first civil war in rome?
Arrow points to the more electronegative atom
o Electronegativity – the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding electrons to itself
Increases across a period and decreases down a group (fluorine is the most electronegative element)
use electronegativity difference of two atoms to predict bond polarity; the greater the difference in electronegativity, the more polar the bond
o Lewis structures – show how valence electrons are arranged among the atoms in a molecule atoms achieve noble gas electron configuration (octet rule)
Write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule (central atom is the least electronegative atom)
Determine the total number of valence electrons each atom is bringing in to form the molecule
Distribute the electrons among the atoms in the molecule giving octets to as many as possible
If any atom lacks an octet, form double/ triple bonds as necessary
Remember multiple bonds are shorter and stronger than a single bond thus has a greater bond energy!
Resonance: when a molecule has multiple structures to describe the
molecule the resulting structure is derived from the average of the
resonance structures
Formal charge (helps us choose between alternative Lewis structures fewest charges and negative charge put on the most electronegative atom = better Lewis structure): occurs when atoms end up with more of fewer
electrons than the valence electrons they brought in order to fill their
octets
o (Valence electrons) – (nonbonding electrons) – (1/2 bonding
electrons)
Exceptions to octet rule: oddelectron species, incomplete octets, and expanded octets
o Oddelectron species: molecules/ions with odd number electrons =
free radicals/ radicals (unstable and reactive)
o Incomplete octets: Some molecules have less than an octet of
electrons (Be, B, and Al)
o Expanded octets: central atom has more than eight electrons
around it (occurs in 3rd row or below elements)
o Bond length: distance between nuclei of bonded atoms (triple bond < double bond < single bond)
o Bond energy: amount of energy needed to break a bond (triple bond > double bond > single bond)
Naming ionic and molecular compounds –
o Type 1: cation is named first, and anion is second (cation is name of element and anion is root of the element plus “ide”
o Type 2: some metals form more than one type of positive ion (charge is specified by roman numeral)
Alternatively, for metals that form only two ions, ions with higher charge in in “ic”, and ions with lower charge end in “ous”
o Type 3: formed between two nonmetals
first element is named, then the second is named as if it were an anion prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms present
Polyatomic Ions consist of atoms joined as in a molecule, but they have charge KNOW THESE:
Acetate: C2H3O2
Carbonate: CO32
Hydroxide: OH
Nitrate: NO3
Phosphate: PO43
Ammonium: NH4+
Sulfate: SO42
Perchlorate: ClO4
Chapter 4 (sections 13):
Valence Shell Electrons Pair Repulsion Model (VSEPR): the structure around a given atom is determined principally by minimizing electron repair repulsions
o electron geometry: arrangement of electron pairs (lone pairs are physically larger than bonding electron pairs thus more repulsion leads to smaller bond angles) o molecular geometry: arrangement of atoms
when there are no lone pairs, electron geometry = molecular geometry, but when there are lone pairs, electrons geometry does not equal molecular geometry
Bond polarity: covalent bond formed between two atoms with different electronegativities are polar; a molecule that has a center positive charge and a center of negative charge is said to have a dipole moment
1. predict Lewis structure
2. use VSEPR theory to predict molecular shape
3. use electronegativity values to predict bond dipoles
4. determine polarity of a molecule based on overall dipole moment of molecule
Hybridization: procedure of mixing the native atomic orbitals to form special orbitals for bonding
o a new set of degenerate orbitals formed from hybridization = hybrid orbitals o sp3 hybridization: tetrahedral arrangement with 109.5° bond angles
o sp2 hybridization: trigonal planar arrangement with 120° bond angles o sp hybridization: linear geometry with 180° bond angles
o sp3d hybridization: trigonal bipyramidal geometry with 120° and 90° bond angles o sp3d2 hybridization: octahedral geometry with 90° bond angles
Bonding in molecules –
o σ bonds: electron pair shared in an area centered on a line running between atoms (headhead overlap)
o π bonds: parallel unhybridized p orbitals share electron pair in the space above and below the σ bonds
o Double bond = one σ bond and one π bond