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Study Guide
Psychology 101 Exam 3
1. Emotion I
A. Four Components of Emotion
a. Emotion
b. Physiological Processes
c. Expressive Behavior
d. Cognitive Appraisal
a. The Physiological Component
i. The Autonomic Nervous System
• “Fight or Flight” response
ii. Polygraph Tests as Lie Detectors
• Assumes that lying leaves distinctive physiological clues
• Empirical support is weak and conflicting
• Test is inadmissible in most courts
• It is illegal to use for most job screening
• False Positive: people who were found guilty is actually innocent
b. The Expressive Component
i. Facial EMG Studies of Emotion
• Electrodes placed on the face record activity in various muscles
• Positive emotions: increase activity in cheeks
• Negative emotions: increase activity in forehead and brow area
c. The Cognitive Component
i. Counterfactual Component
• Imagining what could have been
• Examined pictures of Olympic medal winners
• Happier when they won bronze then silver
B. Theories of Emotion
a. CannonBard Theory of Emotion
• Emotion originates in the thalamus
• “Body” (physiological systems) & “Mind” (emotional experience) are independently activated at the same time
b. JamesLange Theory of Emotion
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• Emotion arises from physiological arousal
• Happiness: comes from smiling
• Sadness: comes from crying
c. Sensory feedback
• Facial Feedback Hypothesis
• Changes in facial expression produce corresponding changes in emotion d. Facial Feedback (Strack)
• Hold Pencil in mouth while doing task
• Mimic frowning or smiling
• Measure mood
e. Twofactor Theory of Emotion
• Physiological arousal
Sweaty palms
Increased heart rate
rapid breathing
• Cognitive Label We also discuss several other topics like How much thermal e is needed to break h2o bond?
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Attribute source of arousal to a cause
• Both factors are required for emotion
Event
Physiological arousal Cognitive interpretation
Emotional experience
f. Dutton and Aron’s study
• Attractive experimenter met participants at end of bridge or before
• Recorded whether participants asked her out or not
• Recorded sexual imagery in TAT
• Rickety bridge = more attraction
• Misattribution of arousal
2. Emotion II
A. Emotion: A state of arousal involving facial and bodily changes, brain activation,
cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings, and tendencies toward action
B. The Biology of Emotions
• Amygdala and insula
Amygdala: responsible for assessing threat
Damage: results in abnormally in processing fear
• Cingulate cortex and basal ganglia
• Cerebral cortex: reactions to pain
a. Hormones and Emotions
• When experiencing an intense emotion, two hormones are released Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
• Results in increased alertness and arousal
• At high levels, it can create the sensation of being out of control
emotionally
b. Facial Expressions
• The same facial expressions of basic emotions are found across cultures and in totally blind and deaf children We also discuss several other topics like chem mark san antonio
c. Basic Emotions
• Fear
• Anger
• Disgust
• Surprise
• Happiness
• Sadness
• Contempt
d. Culture and Emotional Variation
• Culture determines what people feel angry, sad, lonely, happy, ashamed or disgusted about
• Some cultures don’t have words for emotions that seem universal to others.
• Some cultures have words for specific emotions unknown to other cultures C. Emotional Leakage
a. Facial Expressions
b. Gaze
• Look at interaction partner in face 7075% of the time
• Less conveys negative emotions
• More conveys positive emotions
c. Gesture
• selftouching actions (e.g. touching face, gripping hands) indicate intense
emotions: depression, elation, anxiety
d. Touch
• Affection, love
• Fear
• Power and status
D. Gender and Emotion
a. Physiology and intensity
• Women: recall emotional events more intensely and vividly than do men • Men: experience emotional events more intensely than do women • Conflict is physiologically more upsetting for men than women • Possible reasons
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Men are more likely to rehearse angry thoughts which maintains
anger
Women are more likely to ruminate which maintains depression
b. Sensitivity to Other People’s Emotions
• influence one’s ability to “read” emotional signals
The sex of the receiver
How well the sender and receiver know each other
How expressive the sender is Don't forget about the age old question of rel1300 fsu
Who has the power
Stereotypes and expectations
c. Cognitions
• Men and women appear to differ in the types of every day events that
provoke their anger
Women become angry over issues related to their p a r t n er’s
disregard
Men become angry over damage to property or problems with
s tr a n g ers
d. Expressiveness
• North America women
Smile more than men
Gaze at listeners more
more emotionally expressive faces
more expressive body movements
Touch others more
Acknowledge weakness and emotions more
• men only express anger to strangers more
e. Emotion Work
• Women: work hard at appearing warm, happy and making sure others are
happy
• Men: work hard at persuading others they are stern, aggressive and unemotional
• Reason: Gender roles and status
E. Happiness
a. Age
• Only minor differences in age
• No gender differences
b. Marriage
• Married people are happier than others
• Reason
Twoway street
Marriage reduces loneliness
Only true for happy marriages
3 out of 4 Americans – spouse is best friend
4 in 5 would marry them again
F. Mood and Cognition
• Encoding and recall better for mood congruent information • mood induction, list of words, memory for words, depressed people a. Mood Congruency Bias
• E.g. given products to rate
Half given cookies and juice
Rated products better
• E.g. All things considered, how happy are you with your life? “found” money in Xerox machine
Rated self as happier in general
b. Mood and use of Heuristics
• Happy: all is good, can coast
• Sad: something is wrong, must focus
• E.g. mood induction (happy, sad, neutral)
• Use more stereotype when happy
3. Developmental Psychology
A. The NatureNurture Debate
• The debate over the extent to which behavior is determined by genetics and the environment
• Studying adopted children allows researchers to compare
correlations between the traits of adopted children and those of their biological and adoptive relatives
• If identical twins are more alike than fraternal twins, then the increased similarity must be due to genetic differences
Compare identical twins with fraternal twins
Investigators have also studied twins who were
separated early in life and reared apart
Any similarities in traits between them should be
primarily genetic
B. Genetic Building Blocks
a. Chromosomes
• Rodlike structures, found in all biological cells, that contain DNA molecules
b. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• The complex molecular structure that carries genetic
information
c. Genes
• biochemical units of heredity that govern the development of an individual life
C. Prenatal Development: Nature and Nurture from the start
• Egg and sperm: only 23 chromosomes (not 23 pairs)
• Egg biggest cell in Body (pinprick)
• Life: sperm meeting egg
• Many sperm enter vagina. Only one can reach egg
Natural Selection
Nature/Nurture
• Egg changes to be impenetrable
D. Human Reproduction II
• XX female XY male
a. Zygote
• Has 23 pairs of almo st identical chromosomes
• One from mom, one from dad. Each with genetic code
• Gene Dominance: When a person possesses differing genes for the same trait, one is often dominant over the other
b. Blastocyst
• Once formed, cell begins to divide
• After 3 days, 6070 cells
c. Prenatal development divided into trimesters
• First: Zygote, Embryo, Fetus
• Second: body parts and neurons in place
• Third: growth
d. Early development mirrors evolution
• The developing fetus (20 weeks)
begins light sensitive
will move to avoid bright light
• 6 months
sensitive to external stimulation
boys move more than girls
• Prenatal
Zygote, embryo, fetus
• Can the fetus learn?
Habituation: When an animal gets used to something
Sandman: buzzing instrument to measure heartbeat
Heartbeat would speed up
Habituation occurred
Change of frequency caused increase in heartbeat to return Able to discriminate and learn
e. Teratogens: When the environment hurts
• Substances
Alcohol
Cigarettes
• Diseases
AIDS
Rubella (German measles)
• Mom’s stress level
Babies with attention difficulties
Anxiety
Unusual social behavior
Reason: Flight or flight response draws blood away from fetus • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
When pregnant women have too much alcohol intake
f. The newborn: a work in progress
• Human babies much less developed than other animals
• Can’t walk, little muscle control
• Brains are not developed (size of birth canal)
• Need care for a long time
• Humans attracted to babies
• The Developing Brain
At birth, neurons are in place, but few connections
During first year, axons grow, dendrites multiply, connections form Over next few years, active connections strengthen
• Sensory Capacities
Born sensitive to range of female voices
Like smell of lactating women (even if bottle fed)
g. The Newborn
• Reflexes
Permanent: Swallowing, breathing, coughing, blinking
Temporary: Palmar Grasp, Babinski, sucking, rooting
o Palmar Grasp
By pressing just one of baby’s palms, fingers should
grasp the object
o Babinski
Baby’s foot is stroked from heel toward the toes.
The big toe should lift up, while the others fan out
o Sucking
A finger or nipple placed in baby’s mouth will elicit
rhythmical sucking
o Rooting
When baby’s cheek is stroked at the corner of her
mouth, her head will turn toward finger and she will
make sucking motions
• Temperament
Characteristic ways of responding to the environment that vary
from infant to infant
Some babies “approach” and some “avoid”
Fast prenatal heartbeat – more fearful as kid
Extraversion – highly heritable
Happiness “good disposition”
Tend to last a lifetime
h. Milestones in Motor Development
• Perceptual development
23 months’ depth
23 months’ whole objects
Hearing comes quicker – right away
• Piaget’s Theory
Assimilation
o Fitting new objects, events, etc. into an existing schema
Accommodation
o Modifying a schema to fit new events, objects, etc.
• Changing Schemas of the Earth
From preschool through about the 5th grade, children gradually assimilate and then accommodate the sphericalearth concept
into their thinking
• Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Stages
Sensorimotor (02 years)
o Infant learns through concrete actions: looking, touching,
putting things in the mouth, sucking, grasping
o “Thinking” consists of coordinating sensory information
with bodily movements
o Major accomplishment is object permanence
Preoperations (2-7 years)
o Language and symbolic thought develop
o Still lack the cognitive abilities necessary for
understanding abstract principles and mental operations
o Egocentric
o Cannot grasp con s e r v ation
Concrete Operations (712 years)
o Thinking is still grounded in concrete experiences and
concepts, but children can now understand:
Conservation
Reversibility
Cause and effect
o “Conservation of Liquid” Task
Formal Operations (12 and up)
o Beginning of abstract reasoning
o reason about situations not personally experienced
o think about the future
o search systematically for solutions
o draw logical conclusions
Can infants add and subtract?
o Show the baby the same array many times
o Show the array with an element missing (shown) or one
added
o Surprise indicates that her or his expectations were violated Speed of Information Processing
o Response times decrease from 712 years of age
Consistent across several different types of tasks
o This may be due to the biological maturation of the brain
Increased myelination of axons
i. Social and Emotional Development
• Touching
Touched newborns grow and develop faster
Reduced right frontal EEG activity – associated with depression Better immune functioning
E.g. touched preemies 15 min/ 3 X a day
o Grew 15% faster
o Were more alert
o Discharged faster
• Visual Preferences in Newborns
Infants spend more time looking at patterns than solid Infants spend the most time looking at a drawing of a human face • Newborns and Human Faces
Infants were shown blank shape, a proper face, or scrambled facial features
Infants looked more intensely at the proper face
• Social Development
Attachment
o A deep emotional bond that an infant develops with its primary caretaker
Primary Drives Theory
o Attachment results from associating the satisfaction of primary drives with the being who satisfies them
Harlow’s Study
o Tested primary drives theory in Rhesus
o monkeys 2 surrogate mothers
a wire surrogate that fed the infant
a cloth surrogate that did not feed the infant
o Results
Despite the wire surrogate being a source of food,
the infant monkeys attached to the cloth surrogate
mother
Separation Anxiety
o Separation anxiety is a fear reaction when the primary caregiver is absent
o Seen in all cultures
o Corresponds with development of object permanence
Er i k son’s Eight Stages – I
o Trust vs. Mistrust
Baby’s first year (01 year)
Challenge: Baby depends on others to provide
necessities
If needs are not met, child may never develop
essential trust of others
o Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Toddler (12 year)
Challenge: Young child must learn to be
independent without feeling too ashamed or
uncertain about his or her actions
o Initiative vs. Guilt
Preschool age (35 years)
Challenge: Child acquires new physical and mental skills, but must also learn to control impulses
Danger lies in developing too strong a sense of guilt over his or her wishes and fantasies
o Industry vs. Inferiority
School age (612 years)
Challenge: Child learns to make things, use tools, acquire the skills for adult life
Children who fail lessons of mastery and
competence may come out of this stage feeling
inadequate and inferior
Styles of attachment
o Strange Situation Test
A parentinfant “separation and reunion” procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a
child’s attachment (separation anxiety)
o Secure Attachment
baby is secure when the parent is present, distressed by separation, and delighted by reunion
Ainsworth’s View
o Securely attached kids use caretaker as a secure base o Anxious Ambivalent infants first seek and then avoid caretaker. Cry and cling
o Avoidant infants are not attached at all
o Parental responsiveness highest in securely attached kids, lowest in avoidant kids, and inconsistent in ambivalent kids Day Care Providers
o Majority of kids are not take cared by parents but other family members
Day Care Effects
o Hard to study because of confounds
o Most research: reasonablequality day care does not significantly harm kids
o The positive effects of day care that do occur appear to be social
o Some positive cognitive effects for very low income kids in high quality day care
Gender
o Boys more active than girls
o More active play with boys; gentler with girls
o Nature/nurture interaction
o Case of John/Joan
Sex hormones in womb
o Kids learn gender roles before they learn gender stability
Gender Segregation at Playtime
o Fouryearolds spend three times as much time with same
sex playmates as oppositesex playmates
o By age six, children spend 11 times as much time with
samesex playmates
Parenting Styles
o Authoritative
High parental control& High parental involvement
o Authoritarian
High parental control low parental involvement
o Permissive
Low Parental control High Parental Involvement
o Uninvolved
Low Parental Control Low Parental Involvement
o Parenting Styles and Child Outcomes
Antisocial behavior
High parental control
j. Adolescence
• Adolescence vs. Puberty
Adolescence
o From the Latin "Adolescere," meaning "to grow up"
o The culturallydetermined state between childhood and
adulthood
o Definition
The transition from childhood to adulthood
Has become longer over time
Earlier onset of puberty
Extended education and training
Puberty
o From the Latin "Pubescere," meaning "to grow hairy"
o The onset of sexual maturity
o Girls 714
o Boy 916
k. Milestones
• Menarche
A girl’s first menstrual period
Girls begin to store more fat
Girls get bigger in hips than shoulders
• Spermarche
A boy’s first ejaculation
Boys hearts grow bigger
Boys get bigger in shoulders than hips
• Adolescent Growth Spurt
Girls: age 13
Boys: age 16
final maturational growth spurt in height
• Physical Development: The Brain
Amygdala
Frontal Lobes: not well developed in adolescents
• Puberty and Body Image
Girls: mature earlier than their peers are usually less satisfied with their size, weight, and figure
Boys: mature later than their peers have only temporary decreases
in body image
• Erikson’s Eight Stages – II
Identity vs. Role Confusion
o Adolescence (1319 years)
o Challenge: Identity crisis
Teenagers must decide who they are, what they are
going to do, and what they hope to make of their
lives
Those who resolve the crisis will emerge with a
strong identity, ready to plan for the future
Those who do not will sink into confusion, unable to
make decisions
o Problems
Conflicts with parents
Frequency: early adolescence
Intensity: midadolescence
Most often with moms and daughters
Mood Swings
By midteen years 1/3 are depressed
Often report feeling lonely or nervous
Risky Behavior (late adolescence)
Adolescent Disengagement
o The proportion of time spent with the family decreases almost 3% per year
o Not true for time spent alone with parents
Adolescent Transformation
o Boys feel worse while in family settings from grades 58, then improve
o Girls feel worse while in family settings
from grades 510, improvement later
Imaginary Audience
o The strong focus on self leads adolescents to
feel that everyone else is focused on them as
well
Personal Fable
o Adolescents assume their thoughts and feelings are
unique (no one has ever loved so deeply, etc.)
l. BIOLOGY and the Teen Brain
• Changes in the adolescent brain
Pruning of synapses, primarily in prefrontal cortex
Myelinization
Neurological changes may not be complete until
early 20s
May help explain why strong emotions of adolescent years can overwhelm rational decision making
• Realistic view of adolescence
Rate of violent crimes committed by adolescents has
been dropping steadily since 1993
Feelings selfesteem do not suddenly plummet after the age of 13 for either sex
Very little change in narcissism
levels over the decades
Survey: Today’s teenagers are more sexually conservative than their parents were
j. Adulthood and Aging
The Continuously Changing Self
• Subjective Age
Younger people tend to feel older than they are
Older people tend to feel younger than they are
This effect is most pronounced in
the oldest and youngest
• Physical Changes
2050 no huge changes in physical self
Metabolism progressively slows down
Eyes progressively deteriorate
After 50 changes begin in organ functioning
Reason
o some changes inevitable – cells dividing a little like a photocopy
o Lack of exercise, bad diet, lack of meaningful activity Exercise slows physical decline dramatically
Continued sexual activity common among those over 80 • Menopause
Menopause: The end of menstruation and fertility
Can be difficult physically – less female hormones
Can be hard psychologically
Some women – new lease on life
• Cognition in adulthood
Stable until 50
At 50 loss of connections in brain starts to catch up with people By 60 most people slower on cognitive tasks
Dramatic drop right before death terminal decline
• Intelligence and Age
Measures of fluid intelligence decline steadily through middle and late adulthood
o Inductive reasoning
o Spatial ability
Measures of crystallized intelligence remain stable into the 70’s o Verbal ability
o Numeric ability
• Perception in Adulthood
50% of 65 and older have cataracts – clouding of lens By 50 high pitch sounds are hard to hear
By 50 background sounds are hard to block out
Taste buds survive, but smell is affected (which affects taste) • How Good is Your Memory?
Older people are consistently less confident of their memory than younger people
• Erickson’s Stages
Intimacy vs. Isolation
o Young adulthood
o Challenge: The young adult must share himself or herself with another and learn to make commitments
o People are not complete until they are capable of intimacy Generativity vs. Stagnation
o Middle years
o Challenge: Will the adults sink into complacency and selfishness, or experience generativity creativity and
renewal?
Ego Integrity vs. Despair
o Late adulthood and old age
o Challenge: As a person ages, he or she strives to reach the ultimate goals of wisdom, spiritual tranquility, and
acceptance of his or her life
• Levinson's ”Seasons" of the Life Cycle
Periods of change interspersed with periods of relative calm • Life Course in Women
1) No children phase
2) Starting a familypreschool phase
3) Schoolage phase
4) Adolescent phase
5) Launching phase
6) Postparental phase
• The Myth of a” Midlife Crisis"
10,000 adults filled out a questionnaire that measured emotional instability
Neither males nor females showed increased instability during the 40’s or early 50’s
There is a shift in thinking about life: distance from birth versus from death: reevaluation
• Self and Relationships
Personality stable throughout the life course
Have fewer, but more intimate relationships
• Parenthood
Marital satisfaction declines after the birth of the first child, esp. for women
Role strain, inequitable division of labor are factors
• Later Adulthood
Only 13% of those over 65 are below the poverty line The majority of people view
retirement positively
Losing a spouse increases both mortality and suicide rates • The KüblerRoss Stages of Dying
1) Denial and Isolation
2) Anger
3) Bargaining
4) Depression
5) Acceptance
• Dealing with the death of others
Grief: distress following death of a loved one
Bereavement: missing a loved one and longing for his or her
company
Stages of grieving
o Shock (3 weeks)
o Emotional upheaval (1 year) anger, loneliness, guilt
o Lessening of grief (after a year)
4. Intelligence
a. Spearman’s Theory of Intelligence
• Spearman theorized that individuals differ in general ability (g)
• Spearman’s “g” Factor
Spearman proposed a General Intelligence (g)
o Allpurpose ability
o Underlies all mental ability
Specific Abilities (s)
o Abilities particularly relevant to this task or some part of it
g and one or more s’s contribute to performing
any particular task
b. Modern Forms of Assessing Intelligence
• StanfordBinet
• Wechsler Intelligence Scales
These are examples of nonverbal/visual tasks.
Also include verbal/language tasks
c. Neural Speed and Intelligence
• Recorded time required for brain to react to visual stimuli
• Ordered subjects from slowest (1) to fastest (5)
• Subjects with higher conduction speed also had higher scores on an intelligence test
d. IQ Scores
• Original Formula= Mental Age/ Chronological Age X100
• Now calculated by deviation method
• Performance is compared to others of the same age
• Range of IQ
95% people IQ 75130
68% IQ 85150
Extremes of Intelligence
Mental Giftedness
o Substantially above average
o 130135
Intellectual Disability
o Mild (IQ between 5670) (6th grade level)
o Moderate (IQ between 4155) (2nd grade level)
o Severe (IQ 40 and below) (cannot do basic life functioning) e. Making a Diagnosis
• Mental health professionals look for three criteria before making a diagnosis of intellectual disability in an adult
An IQ below 70. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. The tests measure a person's ability to solve problems using both verbal and nonverbal information. For instance
o Asking a person to identify what's wrong or absurd
in a picture, like a calendar with no Sundays.
o Can a person put a series of pictures
in a sequence to tell a logical story?
o How well can a person recite a series
of numbers forward and backward?
Poor adaptive behavior skills. Psychologists look to see how well a person gets along in the world: how a person interacts socially and his ability to take care of himself. For instance
o Can a person prepare a complete meal
or make a new meal out of leftovers?
o Socialization, communication, daily living skills (motor
skills)
Evidence of intellectual disability before the age of 18.
Investigators look through school and medical records and talk with school teachers, past employers, friends and family in a search for proof that mental retardation existed in a person as a child
• IQ tests predict
School performance
Occupational success
• Nature’s Influence on IQ Scores
greater genetic similarity = more similar IQ scores
o suggests a genetic component
two individuals raised together = similar IQ scores
o suggests the environment shapes intelligence
f. Changing IQ
• Effects of Schooling
Children from comparable schools
o One with 180day year
o One with 210day year
Children began study performing similarly
At end of study, extendedyear children performed better
• Explaining Group Differences
Within a group with all treated exactly the same, differences may reflect genetics
When one group differs from another, the differences may reflect environmental differences
20 point IQ difference between low and high SES (Social Economic Status) White kids
• SelfFulfilling Prophecy
Rosenthal told teachers half of kids were “late bloomers” Those kids ended up doing better at the end of the year person’s expectation can lead to its own fulfillment Teachers with low expectations may settle for less
• Stereotype Threat
African American students are aware of negative stereotypes Vulnerability to stereotype undermines performance
• Flynn Effect
IQ scores rise about 3 points every ten years
o Daily life becomes more complicated
o Nutrition is better
o Technology such as TV and video games
o Intermarriage
• Intelligence Types (Gardner)
Linguistic –
o use language well
Logicalmathematical –
o manipulate abstract symbols
Musical
Spatial
o reason well about spatial relations (surgery,
architecture)
Bodilykinesthetic
Interpersonal
o understand others and social relationships
Interpersonal
o understand yourself
• Triarchic Theory (Sternberg)
Creative Intelligence
Analytic Intelligence
Practical Intelligence
• Emotional Intelligence
the ability to understand and regulate emotions effectively