Description
some things were wrong, but overall good study guide.
Genetics
1. What are genotypes, phenotypes, genetics, genome, chromosomes?
a. Genetics = the study of hereditary
i. Includes, genes, gene replication, and gene products and traits
b. Genome = sum of cell’s material
i. Include all chromosomes of a cell and plasmids
ii. Genomics = sequencing and molecular characterization of genomes
c. Chromosomes
i. Carry hereditary information
ii. Made from DNA w/nucleotides (ACTG)
iii. Double stranded
iv. Template to make RNA
v. PRO have 1 circular chromosome and maybe plasmid If you want to learn more check out What are the similarities between terrestrial planets and jovian planets?
vi. EUK have more than 1 linear chromosome
d. Genotype = genetic makeup of cell/organism
e. Phenotype = traits due to expression of genotype
2. How does DNA replication occur? What’s the structure of DNA?
a. DNA structure
i. Nitrogen base + deoxyribose + phosphate
ii. Sugar phosphate backbone We also discuss several other topics like How oceanic crust form?
We also discuss several other topics like What are the neural networks of sleep?
iii. Hydrogen bonds from A:T and C:G
b. Complementary strands
i. 3’ end = hydroxyl group attached (OH)
ii. 5’ end = phosphate group attached (PO4)
c. Replication steps
i. Key points
1. Always replicates in from 5’ to 3’ end
2. Breaking of hydrogen bonds of antiparallel strands (origin of replication) replication fork
3. RNA primase attaches to fork
ii. Elongation
1. Leading (5’3’)
a. Continuous
b. Enzymes unwind parental double helix
c. Proteins stabilize the unwound parental DNA
d. Leading strand is synthesized continuously by DNA polymerase
2. Lagging
a. Noncontinuous
i. Goes backwards in segments
ii. Can’t be read by DNA polymerase
b. 1) RNA primase adds more RNA Primers
c. 2) DNA polymerase digest RNA primer and replaces with DNA Don't forget about the age old question of What two structures are not apart of the endomembrane system?
i. Okazaki Fragments = gap between 2 RNA primers
d. 3) DNA ligase joins fragments of the lagging strand
iii. Each new double helix consists of 1 old and 1 new chain. This is what’s called semiconservative replication We also discuss several other topics like What is liposuction?
3. What are the enzymes needed for replication? We also discuss several other topics like What does a stock market crash mean?
a. RNA primers, RNA primase
b. DNA polymerase, DNA ligase
4. What is the difference between lagging and leading strands?
a. Leading is 5’3’ and continuous replicates
b. Lagging is 3’5’ and noncontinuous replicates
5. What does semi conservative replication mean?
a. Each new double helix consists of 1 old and 1 new chain
6. What is replication, transcription, and translation? What enzymes are used? What components are needed? Where does it occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
a. What is translation? Where does it occur in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes.
b. What are the components needed in translation?
c. Replication = DNADNA
i. EUK = nucleus
ii. PRO = cytoplasm
d. Transcription = DNARNA
i. EUK = nucleus
ii. PRO = cytoplasm
iii. 3 types of RNA:
1. mRNA = messenger (read by ribosomes to make protein, carries coding information) 2. tRNA = transfer (carries amino acids to the ribosomes for making new proteins)
3. rRNA = ribosomal (ribosomes contain proteins + rRNA)
iv. Uses DNA dependent RNA polymerase
1. Promoter region = starts where RNA polymerase bonds
2. Moves along 5’3’ w/nucleotide complementary A:U C:G
3. Reaches terminator region
4. RNA and RNA polymerase are released and DNA helix reforms
e. Translation = mRNAprotein
i. EUK = cytoplasm
ii. PRO = cytoplasm
iii. Needs: ribosomes, tRNA, mRNA, amino acids
iv. mRNA w/codon, tRNA w/anticodon
v. Process
1. Starts with AUG
2. tRNA brings right amino acid to mRNA
3. Another tRNA comes and forms peptide bond
4. Previous tRNA is released
5. Reaches STOP codon
6. Polypeptide is released
7. What is the difference between DNA and RNA?
a. DNA = long polymer w/deoxyribose and phosphate backbone, 4 bases (ATCG)
b. RNA = polymer w/ribose and phosphate backbone, 4 bases (AUCG)
8. What is the genetic code? What does degeneracy of the genetic code mean?
a. Triplets of 3 nucleotides = codon
b. 64 sets of triplets
i. 3 STOP codons: UAA, UAG, UGA
ii. 1 START codon: AUG
iii. 61 codons to code
iv. 20 diff amino acids
c. Degeneracy of the genetic code = some codons code for the same codon genetic code is degenerate 9. What are the start and stop codons? Can you count how many amino acids can be made from a piece of m RNA?
a. 3 STOP codons: UAA, UAG, UGA
b. 1 START codon: AUG
10. What is the difference between transformation, transduction, and conjugation? What is the difference between specialized and generalized transduction?
a. Transformation = naked DNA (free floating DNA from lysed cell)
i. Recombination = replaces a piece of chromosome
ii. Integrates free floating DNA into its DNA
b. Transduction = exchange of bacterial DNA via bacteriophage
i. 2 types of bacteriophages:
1. Lytic (virulent) = infects, replicates, lyses
2. Lysogenic (nonvirulent) = infects, integrates w/chromosome, then either binary fission or enter lytic cycle
a. Prophage = piece of integrated viral DNA in host chromosome
ii. 2 types of transduction
1. Generalized = random packaging of bacterial genes/proteins into virus
a. Can be carried to a new host
b. Occurs in lytic cycle
2. Specialized = incorporates into host chromosome; must exist as prophage
a. Can revert from lysogenic to lytic
b. May include some of host DNA new phage new host
c. Conjugation = exchange of bacterial DNA via sex pilus
i. Process
1. Pilus attaches to other bacteria
2. Pulls together and fuses membranes together
3. Copies and transfers F plasmid to F
4. Pilus detaches, and both have F plasmid (2 F+’s)
11. What is the difference between lytic and lysogenic viruses?
a. Lysogenic viruses can undergo specialized transduction and integrate itself into bacterial DNA; can switch to lytic cycle
b. Lytic viruses undergo generalized and package bacterial or viral DNA to lyse
12. What is a bacteriophage?
a. Bacteriophage = a virus that parasitizes a bacterium by infecting and reproducing inside the bacterium 13. What are F+, F, and HFr cells? What are the results of an F+ x F conjugation? What are the results of an HFr x F conjugation?
a. F+ = donor (male)
b. F = acceptor (female)
c. Hfr = F plasmid gene in host chromosome
d. Combinations:
i. F+ & F = F+
ii. F+ & HFr = F+
iii. Hfr + F = F
e. Process:
i. Pilus attaches and combines membranes
ii. Starts to copy DNA, but it is cut halfway
iii. DNA still integrated to other cell (only a few genes), but not the F plasmid
iv. Creates variation
14. What are the ways to making variation?
a. Mutations
b. Transformation, transduction and conjugation
Growth Control
1. What is the difference between sterilization, disinfection, and antisepsis, sanitation? Give examples of each. What is degerming?
a. Sterilization = destruction of all living things (viruses, endospores, fungi, cysts, protozoa) i. Not relative; either sterile or not
ii. If endospores die it’s sterile; if they didn’t die not sterile
iii. EX:
b. Disinfection = process in which vegetative harmful microbial forms are destroyed
i. Reducing # of microbes to a nondangerous level to where it’s not harmful
ii. Disinfectant = chemicals that can be used on an inanimate object
iii. EX: phenol, bleach
c. Antiseptic = chemical disinfection of living tissues
i. Disinfectants that don’t destroy living tissues
ii. EX: iodine, alcohol, hydrogen peroxide
iii. Sepsis = refers to bacterial contamination
iv. Asepsis = absence of significant contamination
d. Sanitation = reduction of pathogens on food items
i. Occur by chemical cleansing or chemicals
ii. Chemicals must be safe and palatable
iii. EX:
e. Degerming = removal of transient microbes from skin
i. Via mechanical cleansing or use of antiseptic
ii. Prior to injections/surgery
2. What is the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal?
a. Bacteriostatic = inhibits growth, but doesn’t kill
i. refrigerating
b. Bactericidal = kills bacteria
i. Boiling, autoclave, glutaraldehyde
3. What are the conditions that affect control of growth?
a. Temperature
i. Works better at higher temperature (disinfectants)
ii. Low temperatures dec rate of growth
b. Type of microbe
i. Species have their own requirements
ii. Endospores = the most resistant
iii. Fungal spores, some viruses, (mycobacteria TB/lepri), pseudomonas (biofilm formers), staph = moderate resistant
iv. Vegetative cells = least resistant
c. Physiological state and # of microbe
i. Attack at the log phase bc they are more susceptible
ii. Viruses undergoing replication are more susceptible
d. Cell environment
i. Can’t have a silver bullet disinfection
ii. Organic matter may offer protection from disinfectants
iii. pH of media may affect effectiveness of a disinfectant
4. What are the 3 actions of microbial control agents?
a. Alter membrane permeability
i. Act on lipids and proteins in the plasma membrane
b. Damage to proteins and nucleic acids
i. Denature proteins
ii. Breakdown nucleic acids
c. Inhibit cell wall synthesis
i. Some antibiotics prevent synthesis of new cell wall
5. What are the 3 ways to control microbial growth?
a. Physical and chemical methods
i. Disinfectants
ii. Antiseptics
b. Chemotherapeutic drugs
i. Antibiotics
ii. Synthetic drugs
c. Immune system and vaccines
i. Nonspecific mechanisms
ii. Specific mechanisms
iii. Prevention
6. Understand mechanism of action of physical disinfectants: heat, filtration, osmotic pressure and radiation. Also cold and desiccation.
a. Heat
i. Moist
1. Moisture = heat in the presence of water (steam, boiling)
2. Kills faster and effectively w/moist (protein coagulation is faster)
3. Boiling
a. 100 C @ sea level for 10min
b. Breaks Hbonds in proteins
c. Kills most vegetative cells, fungi, some viruses
d. Disinfects but doesn’t sterilize
4. Autoclave
a. Steam under pressure (high pressure and temp)
b. Sterilizes everything including endospores
c. 15 psi steam @ 121 C for 15min
d. Exception = heat sensitive objects, petri dishes, catheter
e. Glassware and metal work well
5. Pasteurization
a. Louis Pasteur
b. Raising temp/exposing liquid to temp for a long time to destroy the harmful # of
microbes to a nonharmful level
c. 72 C for 15sec
d. Disinfects but doesn’t sterilizes
e. HTST = high temp short time pasteurization
6. Moist sterilization
a. Used to sterilize carton milk + juices
b. UHT = ultrahigh temp
c. Rapid flash heating; 140 C for 4 sec
d. Don’t have to refrigerate until used
ii. Dry = w/o moisture
1. Denatures proteins
2. Hotair sterilization – ovens
a. Longer than moist heat (170 C for 23hrs)
3. Incineration – direct burning, flaming
b. Filtration
i. Liquid/gases/pass through paper with holes that hold all particles
1. End product = sterile solution
2. Used for heat sensitive material
a. Vaccines, antibodies, antibiotics, air filtration in hospitals
c. Osmotic pressure
i. Use of high concentrations of salt and sugar; Used for preservation of foods
ii. Hypertonic plasmolysis (leaves cell)
iii. Hypotonic swells bursts
d. Radiation
i. Ionizing
1. Use xrays/gamma rays creates free radicals DNA cell membranes deteriorate bc the radicals steal ions
2. Used to sterilize materials
a. Plastic items, some food (ground beef)
ii. Nonionizing
1. UV light DNA breaks down creating thymine dimers kills airborne microbes
2. Disinfects only
3. Used in immunocompromised wards
4. Skin cancer
e. Cold/freezing
i. Bacteriostatic effect for bacteria except psychrophiles and psychotrophs
ii. Freezing can kill, but not everything (salmonella)
iii. Slow freezing forms ice crystals that destroy cellular material and cell membranes f. Desiccation = Drying; removal of water
i. Water is required for many processes
ii. Bacteriostatic
iii. Capsules protect against desiccation for a while
iv. Viruses and endospores are more resistant
7. What are some considerations for effective disinfection
a. Microorganisms involved
b. Degree of contamination
c. Length of exposure to disinfectant
d. Strength of disinfectant
e. Mechanism of action of the chemical
f. How will the disinfectant come in contact with the microbe?
g. Nature of the material being disinfected
h. Presence of organic material
i. Temp and pH of the chemical solution
8. Chemical methods to control growth
a. Used on living and nonliving things
b. Many diff chemicals w/diff modes of action
c. Either bactericidal or bacteriostatic
d. Filter paper method and zone of inhibition:
i. Agar plate w/microbes uniformly
ii. P aper discs contain chemicals
iii. Incubate + observe zone of inhibition
iv. Big area = effective, small area = not effective
9. Understand mechanism of action of chemical disinfectants
a. Phenols
i. Disinfectants (EX: Lysol)
ii. Denatures proteins and damages plasma membrane
iii. Bisphenols
1. Antimicrobial soaps and toothpaste, cutting boards affect plasma membrane structure b. Chlorhexidine
i. Disinfectant (used in soaps and surgical scrubs)
ii. Damages plasma membranes, bactericidal
iii. Effective on gram (+) bacteria [staph and strep]
c. Halogens
i. Antiseptic and disinfectant
ii. Can be used alone or in organic and inorganic compounds
iii. Iodine
1. Antiseptic, not sterilizing
2. Denatures proteins
3. Used for skin wounds
4. Bactericidal, can be sporicidal
5. 2 forms
a. Tincture (iodine + alcohol)
b. Iodophor (iodine + organic molecule)
i. Betadine, isodine, wescodyne
iv. Chlorine
1. Disinfectant, not sterilizing
2. Makes HOCl (oxidizing agent) prevents cellular enzyme function
3. Form
a. Cl2 (swimming pools)
b. OCl NaOCl (bleach)
c. Chlorine + ammonia compounds for food/dairy products
d. Disinfectants, antiseptics & sanitizing (what does this mean, does it correspond to
the forms)
d. Alcohols
i. Antiseptic + disinfectant
ii. Denatures proteins + membranes + dissolves lipids
iii. Combine w/water = faster and more effective
1. 7095% = most effective
2. 60% = Purell
iv. Before injections rub alcohols
e. Essential oils
i. Mixtures of hydrocarbons extracted from plants
ii. Preserve foods + holistic approaches
iii. More effective against gram (+) bacteria
iv. Microbial action bc phenolics and terpenes
f. Heavy metals
i. Denatures proteins
ii. Effective at low concentrations
iii. Silver
1. Disinfecting burns
2. Kills and reduces microbes
3. Eye drops in newborns prevent ophthalmia neonatum
4. Prevents Neisseria gonorrhoeae
iv. Copper
1. Destroy algae
2. Water reservoirs & swimming pools
v. Zinc
1. Reduction of bacterial growth
2. Mouth wash + tooth paste
vi. Mercury
1. Antiseptic on skin, but not anymore (some toxicity)
2. Antimicrobial effect
3. Mercury + organic = mercurochrome (antiseptic)
g. Surface active agents
i. Dec surface tension of liquids
ii. Emulsifies lipids, disrupts cell membranes
iii. Soaps = degerming & emulsification
iv. Acidanionic sanitizers = anions react w/plasma membrane
h. Quaternary ammonium compounds (quats) = cations are bactericidal, denature proteins, disrupts plasma membrane
i. Have a (+) charge that disrupts membranes (become leaky)
ii. Effective on (+) bacteria, fungi, amoeba
iii. Pseudomonas can grow in quats
iv. EX: zephiran, roccal, cepacol
i. Organic acids (chemical food preservatives)
i. Inhibit enzyme and metabolic activity, affect pH and membrane stability
ii. Palatable for humans
iii. Sorbic acid – found in acidic foods (cheese)
iv. Benzoic acid – found in acidic foods (soft drinks)
v. Parabens – found in liquid cosmetics, shampoos
vi. Calcium propionate – found in breads
vii. Sodium nitrate and nitrite – meat products
j. Aldehydes
i. Disinfectants, can sterilize in some cases
ii. HC=O most effective antimicrobials
iii. Inactivates proteins
iv. Formaldehyde
1. Skin and eye irritant
2. Gas form was an excellent disinfectant
3. Decontamination of lab hospital equipment & preserving tissue/embalming v. Glutaraldehyde
1. Kills endospores
2. Sterilizes
3. Bactericidal, tuberculocidal, virucidal in 10min
4. Sterilize hospital instruments
k. Gaseous chemosterilizers
i. Denatures proteins
ii. Used for plastics and heat sensitive material
1. Furniture, mattresses, beds from patients with TB
iii. Ethylene oxide = sterilization gas
iv. Chlorine dioxide = gas used to fumigate buildings (anthrax endospores) l. Peroxygens
i. Oxidizes cellular macromolecules
ii. Hydrogen peroxide
1. Antiseptic
2. Kills anaerobic bacteria
iii. Benzoyl peroxide
1. Treatment of wounds and acne
10. Identify antiseptics vs. disinfectants.
a. Disinfects
i. Boiling
ii. Pasteurization
iii. Nonionizing radiation
iv. Phenol
v. Chlorhexidine
vi. Halogens
vii. Chlorine
viii. Alcohol
ix. Essential oils
x. Surfactants
xi. Formaldehyde
b. Sterilizes
i. Autoclave
ii. Moist sterilization
iii. Filtration
iv. Ionizing + nonionizing Radiation
v. Glutaraldehyde
vi. Gaseous chemosterlizers (ethylene oxide, Chlorine dioxide, used w/CO2) c. Antiseptic
i. Halogens
ii. Surfactants
iii. Hydrogen/benzoyl peroxide
d. Bacteriostatic
i. Desiccation
ii. Osmotic pressure
iii. Cold/freezing
iv. Phenol
e. Bactericidal
i. Phenol
ii. Chlorhexidine
iii. Iodine
iv. Heavy metals
v. Quats against (+) bacteria
11. Which gases can sterilize? Which chemicals can sterilize?
a. Ethylene oxide
b. Nitrogen dioxide
c. Ozone
12. How can you destroy prions?
a. Prion = an infectious agent composed of protein madeira
b. Using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and autoclaving @ 143 C
13. List the microbial from most to least resistant (top= most resistant, bottom = least) a. Prions
b. Endospores of bacteria
c. Mycobacteria
d. Cysts of protozoa
e. Vegetative protozoa
f. Gram () bacteria
g. Fungi, including fungal spores
h. Viruses w/o envelopes
i. Gram (+) bacteria
j. Viruses w/lipid envelopes
Fungi
1. What is mycology?
a. Mycology = the study of fungi (yeast, molds, fleshy fungi)
2. Fungi background information
a. More applicable to plants than humans, but there’s been an increase in humans in the past years i. Better at diagnosing, reporting, and inc incidence
b. Grow in soil/vegetation humans eat/touchhuman infection
c. Mainly nosocomial infection in immunocompromised patients
i. (transplant, AIDS/HIV, chemotherapy patients)
3. What are the main characteristics of fungi?
a. Eukaryotic
b. Multi (mold) uni (yeast
c. Chemoautotrophic (carbon and energy from organic compounds)
d. Aerobic and facultative anaerobes
e. Beneficial for food chain
f. Plants depend on fungi in roots (mycorrhizae to absorb food and water)
g. Food (mushrooms, bread, wine)
h. Most are Saprophytes = decompose organic mater
i. Soil
ii. Absorb nutrients
i. Not photosynthetic
j. No peptidoglycan in cell wall
k. Can produce spores (sexual or nonsecual)
l. Found on soil/water and low moisture (like a wall)
m. Slightly more acidic pH = 5
n. Resistant to high salt/sugar concentrations (osmotic pressure)
4. Understand differences between fungi and bacteria.
a. Fungi
i. Euk
ii. Sterols (ergosterols)
iii. Gulcans, mannans, chitin, no peptidoglycan
iv. Sexual and asexual spores
v. Heterotrophic, aerobic, facultative anaerobic
vi. pH = 5
b. Bacteria
i. Pro
ii. Sterols (except mycoplasma)
iii. Peptidoglycan
iv. Endospores (not reproduction)
v. Heterotrophic, autotrophic, aerobic, facultative anaerobic, anaerobic vi. pH = 7
5. Since fungi are EUK, know the characteristics of EUK
a.
6. How are fungi identified? How are they classified?
a. Identification
i. There are no stains
ii. By their type of growth, color, vegetative/reproductive structures iii. Biochemical tests (yeast)
iv. By their hyphae and asexual spores ***
b. Classification
i. By their sexual spores ***
7. Are fungi unicellular or multicellular?
a. Can be either multicellular (mold) or unicellular (yeast)
b. Multicellular (mold)
i. Multicellular, filamentous, macroscopic
ii. Body = thallus
1. Made of filaments called hyphae
c. Unicellular (yeast)
i. Unicellular, nonfilamentous, spherical or oval
ii. Aerobic or facultative anaerobes
iii. Form colonies
iv. Reproduction in 2 ways:
1. Budding
a. Bud form and elongates
b. Nucleus divides by mitosis
c. 1 nucleus goes to the bud
d. Enlarges bud and bud breaks off
e. EX: bakers’ yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
2. Fission
8. What is the difference between septate and coenocytic hyphae? a. Septate = have dividers (septa) between cells
i. Divides hyphae into uninucleate units
ii. Chains of distinct cells
iii. Pores move cytoplasm between each other
b. Coenocytic = multiple cells linked uniformly
i. No/incomplete cross walls
9. What is the difference between aerial mycelia and vegetative mycelia? a. Mycelium = several hyphae grow and intertwine, forming a filamentous mass b. Aerial mycelia = grows upwards and spreads spores
c. Vegetative mycelia = grows on surface and obtains nutrients
10. What are dimorphic fungi? Give examples.
a. Dimorphic fungi = can switch between a yeast and mold
b. Depends on:
i. Temperature (37 C = yeast, 25 C = mold)
ii. Environment (food availability, oxygen)
c. EX: Candida albicans
i. Most famous yeast to cause human infection (yeast infection)
ii. Mucous membranes
iii. All have a little candida, but overgrowth is bad (thrush)
iv. Caused by antibiotics, hormonal imbalances, pH changes to acidic
11. How can molds reproduce?
a. Asexually = fragmentation of hyphae
b. Sporulation = sexual and/or asexual spores
12. Identify the sexual and asexual spores
a. Asexual
i. Formed from same organism to make and identical organism + on aerial hyphae ii. Mitosis
iii. Types
1. Conidia
a. Tips of hyphae
b. Not enclosed in sac
c. Branches with spores
2. Arthroconidia
a. Not enclosed in sac
b. Formed by fragmentation of septate hyphae
3. Blastoconidia
a. Not enclosed in sac
b. Budding of hyphae segment
4. Chlamydoconidium
a. Not enclosed in sac
b. Segmented hyphae walls thicken and round
5. Sporangiospores
a. Formed within sacs called sporangium
b. Formed at the end of a sporangiophore
b. Sexual
i. Fusion of 2 diff types of strains from same species
ii. Zygomycota
1. Produce zygospores
iii. Ascomycota
1. Produce ascospores
iv. Basidiomycota
1. Produce basidiospores
v. Microsporidia
1. Unusual, no mitochondria
2. Obligate intracellular parasite
3. Opportunistic
c. Combinations?
i. Sporangiospore or Zygomycota
ii. Conidia or Ascomycota
iii. Vegetative mycelium or mushroom (basidiospores underneath)
1. Mushrooms come from segmentation of hyphae
13. Are fungal diseases acute or chronic? How do people get them?
a. Fungal diseases are chronic and reoccurring
b. People get them from exposure to spores in the environment
c. Healthy people usually don’t get fungal diseases; immunocompromised people do 14. Are fungal infections contagious? Which ones are the only exceptions?
a. No they are not contagious EXCEPT FOR Cutaneous/Dermatophytes
15. What are the 5 types of fungal/mycosis/mycotic diseases?
a. Systemic
i. Deep in the body
ii. Inhalation of spores from soil, vegetation, air
iii. Goes to lungs of immunocompromised germinatespneumoniagets in bloodstreamspreads throughout body
b. Subcutaneous
i. Exposure to contaminated equipment (with spores or saprophytic fungi) through puncture wounds
ii. Common in gardeners (from equipment or rose prick)
c. Cutaneous
i. Most common fungal infection
ii. Contagious from direct contact or fomites
iii. Fomites = inanimate object that’re mediums for transfer of fungi
iv. Dermatophytes = fungi that grow only on keratinized tissue (hair, skin, nails) AKA ringworms 1. Contains keratinase that breaks/degrades down keratin
2. Types:
a. Tinea pedis = athletes foot
b. Tinea corporis = body ringworm
c. Tinea cruris = jock itch
d. Tinea capitis = scalp ringworm
e. Tinea unguium = nail ringworm
i. Hard to treat, oral and cream treatment
3. Treatment with antifungal cream that disrupts ergosterols in fungi cell membrane
4. Pets can get ringworm as well
d. Superficial
i. Tropical climates
ii. Outermost layers of the skin, hair, nails
iii. Can’t spread in body
e. Opportunistic
i. Pathogenic in immunocompromised
ii. Takes advantage of low immune system
iii. Pneumocystis jirovecii
1. AIDS patients
2. Soil, vegetation
3. 40% of adults carry it in lungs, but not affected bc they’re healthy; activates when they get sick
iv. Candida albicans
1. Dimporphic (uni to multi)
2. Mucous membranes of mouth and genitalia
3. Causes thrush (yeast infection of mucous membranes)
4. Small quantities in body is ok; overgrowth is bad
a. Susceptible
i. Immunosuppressed (pregnant women)
ii. Antibiotics
iii. Diabetics
iv. Hormonal levels
v. pH
5. White, lesions w/white discharge
16. Why are fungal infections difficult to get rid of?
a. They are eukaryotic like humans and some drugs will affect the body similarly
b. Also they are chronic and reoccurring
Viruses: WHATEVER WE COVER
1. History of viruses
a. Virus = poison
b. Can infect any kind of cell (bacteria, fungi, animals)
c. 1892 – isolated virus of tobacco plant (Iwanoski)
i. Followed Koch’s postulates; plants never got sick though
ii. Looked at filtrate and found out virus that made plants sick
2. Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, what other characteristics do viruses have? a. Obligate intracellular parasites
b. Can’t replcat w/o host cell
c. Smallet microbe (.3 um)
d. Filterable agents (can go through filter paper)
e. Need electron microscope to be seen
f. Either DNA or RNA; ever both at the same time
i. Cell have both
g. Has genetic information (nucleic acid)
i. DNA DNA viruses
ii. RNA RNA viruses
h. Protein coat surrounds nucleic acid = capsid
i. Proteins are made of AAs
i. Have little enzymes
i. Take of over the cell’s machinery (like ribosomes)
j. Some have lipid envelopes
i. Made of phospholipids
ii. Either enveloped or nonenveloped/naked viruses
k. Able to infect only a range of host cells
i. Not all human viruses can infect all types of cells
ii. Have specific receptors on cell surfaces
iii. In order to infect, viruses must be able to attach
3. How are viruses different than bacteria?
a. Bacteria
i. Not usually obligate intracellular parasites
ii. Have cell membranes
iii. Binary fission
iv. Nonfilterable
v. DNA + RNA
vi. Make ATP
vii. Have ribosomes
viii. Can treat with antibiotics
b. Viruses
i. Obligate intracellular parasites
ii. No cell membrane bc not a cell
iii. Reproduce by infection and replicating inside
iv. Filterable
v. Either DNA or RNA
vi. Can’t make ATP
vii. No ribosomes
4. What is the protein coat surrounding nucleic acid called? What is it made of? Do all viruses have this protein coat? Are all viruses enveloped?
a. All viruses have a Capsid = protein coat
b. Not all viruses have an envelope
5. What is a virion? Know the structure of a virus
a. Virion = complete infectious particle
i. Nucleic acid surrounded by capsid +/ lipid envelope
6. How are viruses classified? Can DNA/RNA be ss or ds? What’s special about ssRNA? What kind of symmetry can a capsid of a virion have? Name the different types.
a. Nucleic acid content
i. DNA or RNA can be single or double stranded
1. ssDNA or dsDNA
2. ssRNA or ds RNA
ii. SsRNA can be either (+) or ()
1. (+) RNA can go into a cell and function as mRNA immediately
2. () RNA must be transcribed into a (+) RNA and then it can function as mRNA iii. Retrovirus
1. Changes from RNADNA inside the host
b. Capsid
i. Capsid = protein coat surrounding nucleic acid in all viruses
1. Composed of units called capsomers
ii. Shape/symmetry
1. Helical = long rod/slinky, helical wrapped protein
a. Tabacco mosaic virus
b. Rabies virus
2. Polyhedral
a. Many sides
b. Icosahedral = most common
i. 20 sides w/12 corners
ii. Sides are equilateral triangles
c. Polio virus, adenovirus, herpes virus
3. Complex
a. Complicated structures
b. Often bacteriophages (capsid, tail and sheath [helical])
c. Pox virus – only one
i. No capsid, but several coats surround nucleic acid
ii. Only virus eradicated by vaccines
c. Envelope
Gram +ve cocci: 1. Staphylococci
2. Streptococci
Gram ve cocci: 1. Neisseria
2. Moraxella
3. Thiomargerita: Giant prokaryote
Gram + ve rods: 1. Bacillus: endospore forming
2. Clostridium: endospore forming, strict anaerobic
3. Lactobacillus
4. Listeria
5. Corynebacteria
1. Mycobacteria: acid fast, waxy lipids in c.w. called mycolic acids, slow growers
2. Epulopiscium: Giant prokaryote
Gram ve rods:
1. Pseudomonas aeruginosa: blue green pigment, very resistant to antibiotics
1. Burkholderia
2. Bordetella
3. Francisella
4. Legionella
5. E.coli
6. Salmonella
7. Shigella
8. Klebsiella
9. Serratia
10. Proteus
11. Yersinia
12. Legionella
13. Hemophilus influenzae does not cause influenza, causes meningitis
14. Bacteroides: strict anaerobic
15. Fusobacterium: strict anaerobic, tapered ends
16. Rickettsia: transmitted by insects, obligate intracellular parasite
17. Chlamydia: has a unique life cycle with elementary and reticulate body, obligate intracellular parasite
Gram –ve spirals: 1. Vibrio
2. Campylobacter: survives at 43 C◦
3. Helicobacter
Spirochetes: have axial filaments for motility; LONG SPIRAL
1. Treponema
2. Borrelia
1. Leptospira
Mycoplasmas are the only bacteria with no cell wall and that have sterols in plasma membrane. They are filterable, fried egg appearance eon agar plates.