Description
Bisc 162 Study Guide
Week 1
∙ Biodiveristy Happened overtime though evioulution and spreciation ∙ Earth is 4.6 billion years old
∙ Sedamentary rocks and fossils can show when certain organsms were alive ∙ Radioisotopes help with dating
∙ Earth is always changing
∙ Atmosphere has chanaged photosynthesis
∙ 4 eras
o Precambrian era was dominated by small aquatic life
4.6 bya to 542 mya
o Huge changes in biodiversity occurred in the Paleozoic era
542 mya to 251 mya
6 periods Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian,
Carboniferous, Permian
Era started with big explosion of species (Cambrian explosion) Eras and periods usually marked by mass extinctions and mass radiations
Changes is plate tectonics
Marine radiations
Transition to land, vascular plants, vertebrae animals
o Major land changes altered biodiversity in the Mesozoic era
251 mya to 65 mya
3 periods Triassic, Jurassic, Crustaceous
Reptiles (dinosaurs) and fish radiations, origins of mammals, first flowering plants
o Mammals diversified in the Cenozoic era
65 mya to present
2 periods tertiary and quaternary If you want to learn more check out What food and drug administration, controls?
If you want to learn more check out What are the principles of science?
Modern continental positions, ice ages, climate shifts
Flowering plants dominate, mammalian radiation
Evolution of homo sapiens
∙ Phylogey terms and how to create/ read
o Phylogenetic trees describe relationships through common ancestry Nodes= common ancestor, branches= lineages, Splitting event= lineages diverge
o Phylogenic trees are organized as monophyletic groups
Week 2
∙ Traits shared based on common ancestry
∙ Ancestral vs. derived Don't forget about the age old question of What are the classifications of law?
∙ Traits don’t always reflect evolutionary history
o Homoplasies
Convergent evolution
∙ Both animals have traits that developed independently
Evolutionary reversal
∙ Lose trait ancestor had
o To overcome homoplasies, compare more traits
o Homoplasies are reason why we use molecular DNA to see relationships now
∙ Monophyletic group group that includes common ancestor and all its descendants and nothing else We also discuss several other topics like What is chemical weathering and examples?
∙ Traits of bacteria prokaryote
o No cytoskeleton, membrane bound organelles, or nucleus
o Reproduce through binary fission (not mitosis. Does not have cytoskeleton to do so) Don't forget about the age old question of What powers the atmosphere?
o Circular haploid chromosomes (1 copy of DNA)
o Cell walls (gram stain)
Purple=thick, pink=thin
o Unique flagella
o Shapes cocci(round), bacilli(rod), helical(spiral)
∙ Traits of Archaea
o Ether bonds (Bacteria and Eukarya have ester bonds)
o Absence of peptidoglycan (for cell wall)
o rRNA genes
o Branched hydrocarbons
o In some Archaea a phospholipid monolayer (head, long fatty acid tail, and another head) allows more stability and found in extreme environments ∙ Significance of prokaryotes
∙ Prokaryotes are ecologically essential
o Most abundant organism
o Nutrient cycling (N2, C, S) break down into elements
o Oxygen production (1st in world) cyanobacteria
o Obligate symbionts
∙ Viruses
o Not living but influence life
o contain genetic info and use it to reproduce, genetically related/evolve o Also have a protein coat (capsid) not a cell membrane
o Has either DNA or RNA
o Some have envelope (made of lipid or glycoprotein
o Called viron when not in something
o Reproduce inside cell
o Not contagious between species (specific) If you want to learn more check out How many alleles can a genetic locus in a diploid individual have?
∙ There are 5 categories of viruses
o Double stranded DNA viruses
Ex: mimivirus, herpesvirus, HPV
o Negative sense single stranded RNA viruses
Ex: influenza
o Positive sense single stranded RNA viruses
Ex: rhinovirus (common cold)
o Double stranded RNA virus
Ex: HIV
These infiltrate and change genome
Week 3
∙ Eukaryotes
o Flexible cell surfaces
o Lost cell wall membrane instead
o Folded in on itself to create internal compartments (nuclear envelope, vacuole, Golgi)
o Internal cytoskeleton
o Precambrian era
o Many clades
∙ Key features of eukaryotes
o All eukaryotes have mitochondria, nucleus, and vacuole
o Multicellularity (evolved at least 3 times)
o Cells of single organism devote energy to different tasks
o Sexual reproduction and diversity of movement
∙ Endosymbiosis
o Mitochondria primary symbiosis
o Chloroplasts primary symbiosis (plants)
o Primary eukaryote engulfs prokaryote and keeps it (not break it down) o Chloroplast endosymbiosis occurred more than once
o Secondary eukaryotic cell engulfs another eukaryotic cell that contains chloroplasts (more than 2 membranes)
∙ Protists
o Not monophyletic but some of their groups are
o Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi
o Several means of movement
o Can use vacuoles to maintain internal environment
o Vary in morphology and can be multicellular
o Autotrophic fix 1/5 of the Earth’s carbon
o Heterotrophic sabrobes, freeliving, parasitic, pathogenic
o Found in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments
o Can be endosymbionts
o Can be pathogenic
o Can have negative environmental effects
o Reproduce asexually and sexually
o Mitosis
Budding, binary fission, multiple fission
o Meiosis
Evolved in early protists
o Sexual reproduction
o Sex without reproduction (conjugation)
Exchange DNA but does not make new cells/organism
∙ Life cycles: All stages that are used to produce offspring
o Animals simple life cycles
Male and female organisms both diploid, make their own gametes that are haploid, gametes come together to make new organism o Plants, protists, and fungi complex life cycles
Multicellular diploid (sporophyte) and haploid (gametophyte) stages Diplontic alteration of generations
Multiple hosts
∙ Reproduction can require multiple hosts
∙ Plants form a clade with Eukarya
o Plants and several green algae groups are monophyletic
o Multicellular, unicellular, colonial, aquatic, terrestrial
o Land plants (clade)
Synapomorphies What makes a land plants? Cuticle, protected embryo (gametangia), multicellular sporophyte, live on land, thick walled spores, chlorophylls a b starch cellulose, alteration of
generations
Gymnosperms produce cones and seeds in cones
Angiosperms produce flowers and fruit and seeds in there
Both part of monophyletic group defined by seed making
∙ Plant adaptations moving from water to land
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Obtain and transport water
o Small, stay closer to water and ground
o Xylome, phloem
o More complex roots
o Allows to move away from water
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Water retention
o Waxy cuticle (some nonvascular plants)
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Necessary nutrients
o Leaf pores and stomata (first appeared in mosses)
o Fungi and bacteria symbiosis
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Overcoming gravity
o Stay small and close to the ground
o Lignin protein, ridged long tubes, ¼ of cell wall, very hard to break down ∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Protection against UV
o Stay small, close to ground in shade
o Carotenoids, photosynthetic pigments and antioxidants
o Reliance on the diploid (sporophyte) stage
2 copies of genes= if one gets damaged, have another
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Reproduction changes
o Mosses haploid most of the time
o Ferns 50 haploid / 50 diploid
o Seed plants diploid most of the time
o Flagellated sperm non flagellated sperm
o Embryo on parent seedsfruit
Seeds and fruit allow for transportation of offspring
Fruit is best because animals can eat and transport
∙ Plant adaptations to dry land: Reproductive innovations
o Pollen male gametophyte
Multicellular male haploid
Wind/ insect dispersed
o Seeds
Offspring of plants
Provide protection and food
o Flowering plants
Have seeds/ protective coat
Flowers help pollen dispersal
Came about with rise of insects
o Fruit
Helps with seed dispersal
Uses wind and animals
∙ General features of plants
o Shoot system above ground
Terminal buds (top of the plant)
Axillary buds (where leaf joins stem)
Leaf
Stem
o Root system below ground
Roots
Sometimes mycorrhizae
∙ Plants have modified structures to perform different functions o Roots
Taproots, storage roots
Prep root
∙ Help with plant structure
o Stems
Tubers
Runners
o Leaves
Spines (ex: cactus)
Tendrils
Flowers are modified leaves
Insectivorous
∙ Plants use different genes to modify the 4 basic structures o Vascular plants have three tissue types
Dermal tissue
∙ Protective layer
o Epidermis, guard cells, trichomes, root hairs
Vascular tissue
∙ xylom, phloem,
∙ Transport tissue
Ground tissue
∙ Everything else