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Great review
TEST ONE STUDY GUIDE
(Chpts. 1,2,3,5)
CHAPTER 1 Human Organism
Anatomy: scientific discipline that investigates the body’s structure
Gross Anatomy: structures studied without a microscope
Microanatomy: structures studied on microscopic level
Surface Anatomy: topical structures
Regional Anatomy: structures of a given region
Systemic Anatomy: study of body systems
Embryology: the study of changes from conception to the 8th week of development Cytology: examines structural features of cells
Histology: examines tissues and surrounding materials
Physiology: scientific investigation of processes and functions of living things
6 Levels of Organization Don't forget about the age old question of It is a relationship between factors or variables expressed in statistical terms. what is it?
1. Chemical (atoms combine to form molecules)
2. Cell (molecules form organelles to form cells)
3. Tissue (similar cells and surrounding material form tissues)
4. Organ (different tissues combine forming organs)
5. Organ System (organs with similar functions establish a system)
6. Organism (organ systems in whole make up an organism)
Homeostasis: existence and maintenance of a constant environment of the body Ex. body temperature, blood sugar, blood pressure
Negative Feedback: most body systems regulated this way, any deviation from homeostasis of the body will result in this mechanism, helps maintain homeostasis
Composed of three components
1. Receptor (monitors value of variable)
2. Control Center (establishes set point of variable, controlled by receptors and effectors) 3. Effectors (adjusts value of variable towards set point)
***View Page 11 of Textbook for Image***
Positive Feedback: occur when response to stimulus is a greater deviation from set point, does not maintain homeostasis bur rather increases deviation If you want to learn more check out What are the critical acid/base reaction equations?
Feed Forward: starts processes in anticipation of a future event such as salivating when
thinking of eating
Anatomical Position: referring to the erect position of a person, forward facing with palms of hands facing forward
Directional Terms ***Pg. 14***
● Supine lying face upward
● Prone lying face downward
● Superior/Cephalic otherwise known as up, structure above/closer to head ● Inferior/Caudal down, structure below/closer to tail We also discuss several other topics like How the healthcare professional should respond to ethics and relation diversity?
● Anterior/Ventral frontwards, towards belly
● Posterior/Dorsal backward, towards the back
● Left left side of body
● Right right side of body
● Proximal closer to point of attachment to body
● Distal further from point of attachment
● Lateral away from midline of body
● Medial toward midline of body
● Superficial toward or on surface
● Deep away from surface or internal
Body Cavities
● Dorsal Cavity relates to the back, contains spinal cord and cranial cavity which holds the brain
● Ventral Cavity front of the body, split into
thoracic cavity (lungs and heart)
and abdominopelvic cavity (stomach, liver, Intestines, spleen, etc)
Tissues of Thoracic Cavity
Pleura: tissue lining thorax
Parietal Pleura: thin layer of tissue
Visceral Pleura: lines outside wall of organs
Pleural Cavity: space between parietal pleura and visceral pleura, filled by fluid
Tissues of Pericardium (Heart) If you want to learn more check out Define attitude.
Mediastinum houses heart, esophagus, thymus gland and parts of trachea Parietal Pericardium has an inner serous membrane and outer fibrous membrane Visceral Pericardium lines wall of heart
Myocardium muscular tissue of heart
Tissues of Abdominopelvic Cavity
Parietal Pericardium attached to abdominal wall
Visceral Peritoneum wraps around organs
Mesenteries folds of thin connective tissue that attaches organs together and to body wall CHAPTER 2 Chemical Basis of Life
Matter: anything occupying space and has mass
Mass: amount of matter in an object
Weight gravitational force acting on an object due to its mass
Element: simplest type of matter, has unique chemical properties, made of similar atoms Atom: smallest particle of an element, contains chemical characteristics of element
Atomic Structure
● Neuron no electrical charge
● Proton positive charge
● Electron negative charge
in an atom, the number of protons and electrons are equal
protons and neutrons form the nucleus and electrons move on the outside the nucleus
● Nucleus center of atom where mass is most concentrated We also discuss several other topics like How did ptolemy's model explain the retrograde motions of the planets?
● Electron Cloud area outside of nucleus where electrons are located, most of volume located here
● Atomic Number identification of element, represented by number of protons ● Atomic Mass number of protons and neutrons in atom
Isotopes: atoms of an element that have different mass numbers due to different numbers of electrons (***Pg. 27 for example)
Chemical Bonding occurs when chemical characteristics of atoms attach to each other to become more stable
Ionic Bond: forms when one atom gives one or more electron to another Covalent Bond: forms when atoms share pairs of electrons
Polar Covalent Bond: electron pair is not evenly shared
Double Covalent Bond: when there is more than one pair of shared electrons Hydrogen Bond: cohesive between molecules, forms when hydrogen atom forms covalent bond with another but is electrically attracted to a different atom
Ion when an atom loses or gains electrons to where the number of protons and electrons are no longer equal
● Cations positively charged ions
● Anions negatively charged ions
Molecule composed of two or more atoms
Compound resulting in chemical combination of two or more different atoms Don't forget about the age old question of What is fault tolerance?
Solubility: ability of one substance to dissolve in another
Solution: homogenous mixture of variable concentrations and composition Solvent: part present in greatest volume
Solute: part dissolved in the solvent
Suspension: mixture containing materials that seperate
Colloid: mixture which is unevenly distributed throughout mixture
Chemical Reactions
occurs when atoms, ions, molecules and compounds interact to form or break chemical bonds and create new substances
Reactants: substances that enter reaction
Products: substances that result from reaction
Synthesis Reaction: products are more complex than the reactants
Anabolism type of synthesis reaction most common in the body, building up of molecules and tissues
Dehydration occurs when water is a product
Decomposition Reaction: reverse of synthesis, larger reactant is broken down where product is smaller
Catabolism breakdown of molecules
Hydrolysis Reaction water dissolution
Reversible Reaction: reaction can move left or right and will reach an equilibrium
Oxidation Reduction Reaction: occurs when a reactant gains or loses electrons Oxidation= loss of an electron
Reduction= gain of electron
Energy: capacity to do work
Kinetic (doing work and moving matter)
Potential (stored energy)
Heat (flows between substances of different temperatures)
Mechanical (position or movement of objects)
Chemical (form of potential energy within chemical bonds)
Activation (kinetic energy needed for a reaction)
Work: moving matter
Catalysts: substances that increase rate of chemical reactions
Enzymes: biological catalysts that increase rate of reactions by lowering activation energy
Inorganic Chemistry: deals with substances that do not contain carbon Organic Chemistry: study of carbon containing substances, molecules with carbon to carbon bonds
Water formed when oxygen atom forms a polar covalent bond with two hydrogen atoms Cohesion attraction of water with another water molecule due to Hydrogen bonds Adhesion due to Hydrogen bonds and will attract other molecules besides water
PH Scale **Pg. 39**: measure of acidity of aqueous solution
16= Alkaline or Basic (removes hydrogen ion and releases hydroxide)
7= Neutral
7+= acidic (molecule that releases hydrogen ion in solution)
3 ways to keep Ph Regulation:
Kidneys
Respiratory System
Buffering
CHAPTER 3 Cell Biology
Cell Biology: all living things are composed of cells and all life activity can be explained by cellular activity
Plasma Membrane: also known as the cell membrane, controls entry and exit of substances
Nucleus: centrally located in cell, control center of cell, DNA helps regulate protein synthesis for chemical reactions
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Ribosome: serves as protein synthesis site, some can be attached to E.R. or “float” freely
Endoplasmic Reticulum
● Rough E.R.: synthesizes proteins and transports them,has ribosomes attached
● Smooth E.R.: manufactures lipids, carbs, stores calcium and detoxifies harmful chemicals, no ribosomes
● Cistera: empty space inside the channel like folds in E.R.
Golgi Apparatus: modifies, packs and distributes proteins and lipids for internal use Lysosome: pinched off of golgi apparatus, contains digestive enzymes, type of vesicle Peroxisome: serves as a site of lipid and amino acid breakdown, type of vesicle Mitochondria: major sites of ATP synthesis, powerhouse of cell
Centriole: located in centrosome, site for microtubule formation and determines the cell polarity, forms basal bodies of cilia and flagella
Proteasome: little protein bound packages that transport proteins, are vaultlike
External Cellular Movers
● Cilia: extension of plasma membrane, moves materials over surface of cell ● Flagellum: found in human cells, propels spermatozoa
● Microvilli: contains microfilaments, increases surface area of membrane for absorption and secretion
FLUIDMOSAIC MODEL of PLASMA MEMBRANE (Pg. 64)
Phospholipid Bilayer:double layer of phospholipid molecules, have a polar head and nonpolar tail
Glycocalyx: collection of glycolipids, glycoproteins and carbs on the outer surface of membrane Integral Protein: penetrates deep into bilayer, contains hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions Peripheral Protein: attached to inner or outer surface of lipid bilayer, have amino acid regions with hydrophobic R groups, or hydrophilic R groups
Cholesterol: major lipid, controls membrane’s fluidity by keeping molecules from being too fluid or rigid
Membrane Channel: passageway for substances to enter or exit cell
Hydrophilic “love of water”, having an affinity for water, bonds with water by hydrogen atoms, usually have polar groups which allows them to absorb or dissolve in water, head of phospholipid
Hydrophobic “fear of water”, unable to dissolve or absorb water, a substance that rejects water, tail of phospholipid
Membrane Potential: difference of electrical charge across the membrane, result of cell’s regulation of ion movement
Types of Membrane Proteins
● Marker Molecules allows cells to identify other cells/molecules
● Attachment Protein anchors cells to other cells or extracellular molecules Transport Proteins
● Channel Protein forms passage through membrane, allows specific ions to enter/exit ● Carrier Protein moves ion across membrane, binds chemical to carrier protein ● ATP Power Pump moves specific ions or molecules across membrane requiring ATP ● Receptor Protein binding sites for chemical signals which triggers cellular response ● Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions inside and outside cell
Uniport transports only one substance
Symport transports two substances in same direction
Antiport transports two substances in opposite direction
Cytoplasm: cellular material outside the nucleus, inside membrane
Cytosol: the fluid portion of cytoplasm, colloid and viscous solution
Basal Body: located on cellular side of cilia, almost considered an independent centriole
Cytoskeleton: supports cell and holds organelles in place, has three components; 1. Microtubules form supporting framework of cell
2. Microfilaments thin proteins that help transport and change cell shape 3. Intermediate Filaments only found in some cells
CHAPTER 5: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Functions of the Skin:
1. Protection skin reduces negative effects of UV light, fights harmful bacteria, reduces water loss
2. Sensation sensory receptors that detect heat, cold, touch, pressure or pain 3. Temperature Regulation through monitoring blood flow through skin, through sweat as well
4. Produces Vitamin D regulator of calcium homeostasis
5. Excretion waste is excreted through skin and glands, such as sweat
Layers of the Skin (Pg.143)
Epidermis most superficial layer, made of stratified squamous epithelial tissue, multiple cells thick
Stratum Corneum: most superficial layer of epidermis, 25+ layers composed of dead cells
Stratum Lucidum: 35 layers of dead cells, looks transparent and is present in thick skin Stratum Granulosum: 25 layers thick of flattened cells
Stratum Spinosum: 810 layers of many sided cells
Stratum Basale: deepest of epidermis, one layer of cuboidal cells
Dermis inner layer, deep to epidermis, dense connective tissue which provides for most strength of skin
Papillary Layer: papillae project toward epidermis, loose connective tissue Reticular Layer: collagen and elastic fibers, dense irregular connective tissue
Hypodermis subcutaneous layer, deeper than dermis which connects tissue to muscle or bone, is made of loose connective tissue
*Most cells in the epidermis are keratinocytes: produce protein called Keratin which makes cells durable
Melanocytes: produce melanin pigment which aids in skin color
Melanin: only pigment made in skin
Eumelanin: black or dark brown pigment
Pheomelanin: rusty, or reddish brown pigment
Carotene: yellow/orange pigment that is produced by some plants
Urochromes: yellow pigments, can be seen in those with kidney failure Hemoglobin: reddish tint, can be seen through the skin
Cells of Epidermis
● Stem Cells: produce new cells by mitosis
● Keratinocytes: account for most skin cells, produce keratin protein ● Melanocytes: produce the skin pigment melanin
● Dendritic/Langerhans Cells: phagocytes
● Merkel Cells: specialized epidermal cells that are responsible for sensory reception of skin
Albinism: genetic disorder that is a result of inability to produce tyrosine, absence of skin pigment
Cyanosis: bluish hue to skin that occurs due to lack of blood flow
***Book Is Seeley’s Anatomy & Physiology: VanPutte, Regan, Russo*** ***Look over chapters 1,2,3,&5 for pictures and open ended questions*** ***Review is combination of book material and class notes***