Description
ANT 2301 Midterm (20%) Review Sheet
This is a review sheet and is NOTAllInclusive
Sexuality and Anthropology Introduction: Hock Chapter 1
What is sexuality? And why do we care to understand it?
Sexuality includes feelings, multitude of behaviors, attitudes, etc.
Care to understand it in order to increase knowledge sincei it is something everyone is a part of
What is Anthropology? – four subfields?
Anthropology: the holistic study of humans – past and present, behaviors and societies, biological and cultural
Four Subfields: Cultural anthropology (contemporary societies and variation that occur) Archaeology (examines the past)
Linguistic anthropology (examines variation in communication/lang.) Biological anthropology (study of humans considered with evolution) ∙ How can each subfield inform or answer questions with regards to human sexuality? o Cultural: variation in behaviors, stereotypes, thoughts and beliefs, mating system, societal norms
o Linguistic: communicate about sex, specific cues to attract mates, influence in media, etc.
o Archaeology: sexual behaviors in the past
o Biological: anatomical or physiological differences, evolutionary roots of sexual behaviors, developmental stages, conception and reproduction, universal behavior ∙ How does the scientific method work?
o Standard research procedure in which a hypothesis is stated, data are collected, systematically to test it, and the hypothesis is either supported or refuted We also discuss several other topics like How can you tell if a protein has been extruded into a microsome from an mrna encoding secretory protein?
o Observation deduction hypothesis experimentation
o Theory =goal: more accurate, consistent explanations
Organizes current knowledge and predicts how facts may fit into an
established pattern
∙ Define biological evolution and some mechanisms that drive it
o Biological Evolution: genetic change in populations of living things over generations
o Mechanisms: natural selection, sexual selection, gene flow, genetic drift, mutation, and culture
o What is sexual selection? Sexual dimorphism?
Sexual selection: one sex chooses mates nonrandomly based on
particular traits
Sexual dimorphism: difference in appearance between males and females of the same species, occurs from strong selection
∙ Broadly what is culture and why might it be difficult to define?
o Culture: different characteristics that make up a society, whether it be art and literature, beliefs and values, genes, or something passed through social learningIf you want to learn more check out Does the right and left deltoid muscles are contralateral to one another?
o Variations on how closely culture and genes interact
o How might culture interact with evolution? How can we test culture? Culture influenced evolution (geneculture coevolution)
Thrive with social, medical, and technological progress because culture is a rapid transfer of knowledge and diverse
From the archaeological record what do we know about historical societies and their attitudes about sex? What were some major historical developments in contraception? Ancient Greek: Gods were sexual, both sexes bisexual and malemale sex normal Ancient Rome: elite practices orgies, bestiality, sadism
India before 400 CE: Kama Sutra written
Christianity: masturbation, prostitution, samesex sexual relations, oralgenital contact, and anal intercourse were strictly forbidden.
Sexual Revolution (196070s): liberal views brought about from Vietnam, birth control pill, media
Contraception: Ancient world (pull out, plants [Silphium], vaginal pessaries, amulets) 1600s Casanova used animal intestine condoms, 1846 diaphragm patent Early 1900s: Margaret Sanger – birth control in US, ovulation and hlhormones confirmed Don't forget about the age old question of Multidomestic company is what?
Where do we get our sexual knowledge? – Informal sex education network Sex education in school, not as good as it should be, but education leads to safer choices Sex education from parents, depends on accurate knowledge and willingness to discuss Broadly how has the media portrayed sexuality (general trends)? We also discuss several other topics like Which sex is the homogametic sex in humans?
Mainly heterosexual with specific gender roles
Sex education vs. abstinence approach in the US
Abstinence approach largely failed in the US If you want to learn more check out What is effective strategy?
How are societal norms driven? What are the five meanings of normal?
Norms: shared information on the rules of behavior, driven through socialization process Five Meanings of Normal: subjective, statistical, idealistic, cultural, clinical ∙ Why are we obsessed with “normal”?
o Religious views suggest abnormal is linked with mental illness
o Worries about relationship success
o Evolution “ingroup”: if not normal may be viewed as _____
Sexuality research: Hock Chapter 1
What is cultural relativism? Why is it important when examining sexuality? Cultural relativism: idea that cultural norms and values derive their meaning within a specific social context (shouldn’t judge a person’s culture based on the moral beliefs of another) If you want to learn more check out What is aneuploidy?
Reliability vs. validity
Reliable: consistency in data collection, methods are repeatable (How good is your measure?)
Validity: “right” (accurate) measure (are you getting a measure that answers your question?)
Sampling populations: population, target population, sample
Population: a complete group of people or animals
Target population: group being studied
Sample: subset of target population
o Must be representative
o Large sample size
∙ Random sampling
o Every member of target population has equal chance of participating (difficult volunteer bias)
How do we research sexuality? Know the methods, advantages, and limitations to each ∙ Surveys, Case studies, Observational studies, correlational research, experimentation o Surveys
Written questionnaire, inperson interviews, phone interviews, internet Alfred Kinsey (1940s)
Advantage: easy
Disadvantage: bias
o Case studies
Carefully drawn, indepth biography of an individual or small group of individuals (interviews, questionnaires, and historical records)
Useful for unusual circumstance and clinical work
Advantage: rich information
Disadvantage: not as rigorous, memory gaps, observer bias
o Observational
Participant observation: investigators interacting with subjects
Naturalistic observation: behavior is observed where it occurs
Ethnographic observation: customs and behaviors among groups
Laboratory observation: controlled condition in a laboratory setting Disadvantage: confounding factor (knowing you are being watched) o Correlational research
Statistical measure of relationship between two variables
Correlation coefficient: strength and direction
Correlation DOES NOT equal causation
o Experimentation
Studies cause and effect
Manipulate independent variables and observe effects on dependent variables
∙ What is a sampling bias? What are ways to reduce errors?
o Sampling bias: most studies depend on volunteers, most studies take place in university setting, ethnic minorities are underrepresented, can only sample LGBTQ people who have come out
o Reduce error with systematic sampling and measurement, explicit criteria for causality, empirical data, large sample size, and peer evaluation
∙ What are the ethics to consider when researching humans and their sexuality? o Guidelines developed by APA, AMA, and SSSS (Society for Scientific Study of Sexuality)
o Protect participants from harm
o Confidentiality
o Informed consent – full disclosure
o Freedom to withdraw
o Debriefing
How do we study the evolution of human mating?
∙ What are the two main methods to study human behavioral evolution? Biological Evolution (four submethods) and Evolutionary Psychology
o How does each work?
Biological Anthropology submethods:
∙ Human Behavioral Ecology
∙ Biocultural
∙ Paleontological Reconstruction
∙ Referential Modeling
Biological Anthropology: examines both pre and post 10,000ya, culture as a motivator, humans still under evolution pressures
Evolutionary Psychology: early evolutionary roots (pre 10,000ya),
universal human conditions (no variability)
∙ Natural and sexual selection operate NOT on behaviors, but on
psychological mechanisms (“adapted mind”) that maximize
reproductive success
∙ Cognitive domains shape selection
∙ Enhance survival and reproduction
o What are the limitations to each?
Evolutionary Psychology:
∙ Evidence of reproductive fitness?
∙ Evolution is still operating
∙ What about culture
∙ Assumption on ‘male’ and ‘female’ traits
∙ What are the mating strategies of primates and humans?
o Females = limiting resource for reproduction
o Monogamy, polygyny, polyandry, promiscuous, dispersed
o What does dimorphism have to do with mating?
Dimorphism can imply male competition, resulting in sexual selection with the females
o Data on mating in Australopithecines, Erectines (Homo erectus), Neanderthals and modern humans
Australopithecines: promiscuous and polygyny
Homo erectus: multilevel society, family based, polygyny to monogamy, huntergatherer egalitarian
Neanderthals and Modern Humans: higher multilevel society, family based, slight polygyny, more monogamy, huntergatherer egalitarian
Human Anatomy: Hock Chapter 2
Know the basic external and internal structures of biological males (all terms and anatomy discussed in lecture are possible questions on the exam)
∙ Scrotum, anus, penis, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper’s gland, ejaculatory duct, urethra
o Scrotum
Holds testicles
Maintains temp ~93°F (sperm production)
Cremaster muscle: raises and lowers testes
Dartos muscle: contracts and relaxes
o Anus
End of the digestive tract and outlet for bodily excretions
Also, a sexually stimulating area for some people
o Penis
Primary male sexual organ
2 jobs: ejaculate semen and to transport urine from inside body to outside Consists of corona, shaft, and root
Corpus cavernosum and spongiosum are spongy, cavernous tubes
internally
o Testes (Gonads)
Produce sperm and androgens (i.e. testosterone)
Seminiferous tubules – spermatogenesis
o Epididymis
Tube storing sperm
o Van Deferens
Tube that conducts sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct of the penis
o Seminal vesicles
Two small glands secrete fluids which become part of semen
o Prostate gland
Secretes alkaline fluid
∙ Neutralizes some vaginal acidity
∙ Prolongs life of sperm
o Cowper’s gland
Secretes fluid into urethra during sexual arousal
Lubricates passageway for sperm and decreases acidity of urethra
o Ejaculatory duct
Continuation of the tube the carries semen into the urethra for ejaculation
o Urethra
Tube extending from the bladder to the urethral opening which carries urine out of the body in
∙ How does ejaculation work? What are spinal reflexes?
o Ejaculation occurs in 2 stages: emission and expulsion
o Epididymis vans deferens ejaculatory duct urethra
o Spinal reflex: usually occurs with orgasm, brain is not required to have direction participation
E.g. ejaculation and erection
One can ejaculate without orgasm and vice versa
∙ Explain the autonomic nervous system as it relates to male ejaculation and erection o Regulates automatic bodily responses
o Sympathetic (emotional responses spending energy) largely controls ejaculation o Parasympathetic (processes that restore body energy) largely controls erection ∙ Know the common health concerns in men: testicular cancer, prostate cancer, prostatitis o Testicular cancer
Most common solidtumor cancer for men 2034
Paniless small lump or enlargement of one testicle
Favorable prognosis if detected early
o Prostate cancer
2nd most common cancer among men
~220,000/year, 27,500 deaths
∙ Age is biggest factor
Symptoms: problems with erection, urination, blood in urine
Very slow growing
Treatments: removal, chemo/radiation, “watchful waiting” in men over 80 o Prostatitis
Inflammation of the prostate (any age)
Symptoms: fever/chills, painful, frequent, urgent urination, ache or pain between scrotum and anal opening, painful ejaculation
∙ What are the sexually dimorphic sexual characteristics of males? How might they have been driven?
o Facial morphology, greater muscle mass, larger larynx, deep voice, body and facial hair
∙ Evolutionary perspectives on testes and penis size
o Promiscuous – larger testes to body weight
o Polygyny – smaller testes to body weight
Know the basic external and internal structures of females
∙ Vulva (external genitals – several terms therein), clitoris, breasts, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries
o Vulva
Females external genitals
Components: mons veneris, labia majora, labia minora, urethral opening, clitoral glans, vaginal openings, hymen, perineum, and anus
o Clitoris
One function: arousal
External parts:
∙ Glanstip of clitoris
∙ Clitoral hood (prepuce)
Internal parts:
∙ Shaft (1/2” diameter)
∙ Similar structure to penis
o Breasts
Cultural variation in how viewed
Secondary sexual characteristic
∙ Not directly involved in reproduction
∙ Highly variable in look
Function: breastfeeding and can be sexual
∙ Bodyimage
Consist of mammary glands, connective tissue, and fat
∙ Size has nothing to do with breastfeeding
Nipple and areola: contain erectile tissues
∙ Engorge during sexual stimulation and breastfeeding
o Vagina
Flexible, muscular canal or tube, that extends into the women’s body at an angle toward the small of the back, from the vulva to the cervix
Intercourse and childbirth
Arousal: engorged with blood and fluid secretion for lubrication ∙ Sensitive nerves in lower third portion
Contains Gspot
o Cervix
lower end of the uterus that connects it to the vagina
o Uterus
Flexible organ with strong muscle fibers where a fertilized egg implants and an embryo and fetus grow, from a few days after fertilization until birth
House and nourish fetus
o Fallopian tubes
Transport ovum from ovary to uterus
Site of fertilization
Ectopic pregnancy: fetus develop outside womb, typically in fallopian tubes
o Ovaries (Gonads)
Produce gametes (ova)
Secrete hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
∙ How does menstruation work? Role of estrogen and progesterone
o Menstruation: surface of endometrium is sloughed off, bleeding occurs o Ovulation and the four phases
Ovulation: endometrium thickens
∙ No implantation = endometrium sheds (bleeding)
~28 days, ovulation on day ~14, period ~35 days
Divided into 4 phases: proliferative, ovulatory, secretory, (luteal), menstrual)
o Menstrual problems: e.g. Dysmenorrhea
Dysmenorrhea – painful cramps
∙ Prostaglandins prompt uterine spasms
Amenorrhea – absence of menstruation
∙ Causes: abnormalities, illness, hormonal issues, anorexia nervosa
Abnormal bleeding – differs from period, irregular, long and heavy periods
Toxic Shock Syndrome – bacterial infection
o Evolution of menstrual bleeding: Profet’s sperm hypothesis and Spontaneous decidualization
Profet’s sperm hypothesis
∙ Harmful pathogens from sperm
∙ Removes residual sperm in the uterus
Spontaneous decidualization
∙ Protect against invasive fetal tissue
∙ Maternalinfant conflict & genetic abnormalities
∙ What is menopause? Why only in females – evolutionary perspectives? o Climacteric – decline of oocytes
o Decline in estrogen and progesterone
Night sweats, hot flashes
Dizziness, headaches, joint pain
Decreased vaginal secretions, thin skin
Loss of bone mineral – osteoporosis
o ~4650yo
o Byproduct ofg mammal prenatal oogenesis and longevity
Decline of oocytes and hormones
Mutations accumulate over time
o Adaptive hypothesis – inclusive fitness
Mother hypothesis: invest in fewer offspring = increase survival
Grandmother hypothesis: help daughter with offspring = increase survival ∙ Know the common health concerns in women: endometriosis, reproductive cancers (ovarian, endometrial, cervical, breast)
o Endometriosis
Cells and tissues from endometrium migrate utside uterus
Increasing rates
o Endometrial cancer (uterus)
Most common symptom is postmenopausal bleeding
Most common treatment is surgery
90% survival rate if caught early
o Ovarian cancer
5th leading cancer killer between 40 and 70 yrs
∙ ~21,000 diagnosed, ~14,000 die annually in US
Risk factors include: age, obesity, family history, hormones use, gene mutations (BRCA 1 & 2)
Common to by asymptomatic
∙ 8999% survival (early)
o Breast cancer
US: annually 230,000 women diagnosed, 40,000 die
∙ Men ~2,000 diagnosed
Lumps (cysts) in the breat
∙ Benign (nonlethal) or malignant (lethal)
Risk factors: family history, genetics, longterm hormones use, high body fat
Treatment: selfexam, yearly clinical exam, mammography
∙ If not, metastasized survival rate is ~93%
∙ Chemo and radiation, lumpectomy, or mastectomy also treatments o Hysterectomy
Complete or partial surgical removal of the uterus
∙ 1 in 3 women by age 60
Cancer treatment of uterus, ovaries, or cervix
o Why has cancer persisted in our evolution?
80% occur during postreproductive years
∙ Natural selection cannot fix
Behavioral interference with our biology:
∙ Smoking, drinking, recreational sex, diet, inactivity
o Link between breast cancer and menstruation?
Biocultural issues of modern lifestyles
Huntergatherers: 100150 menstrual cycles
∙ Lower rate of cancer
Western women: 450500 menstrual cycles
∙ Constant fluctuations of estrogen and progesterone
∙ Evolutionary perspectives on the clitoris & hourglass figure (waisttohip ratio) o Breast enlargements in other primates, but not before first pregnancy o Adipose tissue deposition during puberty on butt, thighs, breasts – driven by estrogen
o WHR avg. 0.670.80
o Attractiveness consistent across cultures (0.60.8 range)
o Was female WHR driven by natural or sexual selection?
Fat deposits in the butt and thighs are exaggerated in some populations in extreme or harsh environments
Breasts may mimic butt to bw more visible in bipedality
Sexual and natural selection
What is the difference between male and female circumcision? How are the viewed and preformed in various cultures?
∙ Female circumcision/genital mutilation
o Around 915yo
o Prevent sex and pleasure
o Many health complications
o Some cultures do this forcefully
∙ Male circumcision
o Surgical; removal of the foreskin
o Glans grows added layers
o Controversy about health benefits, found to not have
o More accepted and healthy than female circumcision
Sex and Gender: Hock Chapter 10
Biological sex determination
∙ Biologically determined by chromosomes, hormones, and genitalia
∙ May possess elements of both genitalia
∙ How is sex differentiated and sex organs formed?
o Sexual differentiation: develop distinct reproductive anatomy
Ovum and sperm each contain 23 chromosomes
Sex chromosomes
o Organ development: androgens important for differentiation
Blueprint = female
Male external reproductive organs develop ~8wks prenatally
Female ovaries at 1112 wks
Female sex hormones are crucial in puberty, not for sex differentiation ∙ Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) & Turner syndrome (XO)
o Klinefelter Syndrome: male genetic condition characterized by a rounded body type, lack of facial hair, breast enlargement in puberty, and smallerthannormal testicles
Most fail to produce enough sperm in adulthood to be fertile
Higher risk of autoimmune diseases (e.g. diabetes and lupus)
Equal risk of breast cancer to that of women
Often display delayed development of language and may have learning difficulties
o Turner Syndrome: female genetic condition characterized by short stature, slow or no sexual development at puberty, heart abnormalities, and lack of ovarian function
More physically and psychologically serious than Klinefelter
Short stature, slow or no sexual development at puberty, puffy hands and feet, kidney malformations, hearing problems, extra folds of skin at the
sides of the neck, heart abnormalities, lack of ovarian function, and soft
upturned fingernails, virtually all are infertile
∙ What is intersex?
o Born with sexual anatomy that is neither completely male nor completely females but rather a combination with features of both that cannot be categorized as male or female
o ~2% of population
o Historically, Disorders of Sex Development
o Ambiguous or combination of sexual anatomy
Genetically male with female external genitals
Genetically female with male external genitals
Genetically female with ambiguous external genitals
o Historically doctors assigned and altered sex
What element compose Gender identity.
∙ Elements to gender identity: anatomical, belief/culture, psychological, social ∙ Gender binary vs nonbinary
o Gender binary
US: emphasis on only two genders: male or female
Dichotomy is in conflict for some
o Gender nonbinary
Spectrum of gender
∙ What are some of the gender identities discussed in class?
o Cisgender: identity with sex identity you were born with
o Transgender: don’t indetify with sexidentity you were born with
o Transsexual: undergo transformation of other gender
o Genderqueer (NonBinary): don’t feel like in binary system of male or female o Gender fluid: fluctuate between the different genders
o Gender nonconforming (androgyne): not male but not female
o Agender: lack of gender
∙ Gender expression and pronoun use
o Gender expression: how individuals express their gender through clothing, demeanor, etc.
∙ What are the developmental stages in gender identity?
o First aware of anatomical sex by 18 months
o Selfidentity starts ~23yrs of age
o ~4yrs old: spend 3x more hours with samegendered peers
o ~6yrs old: 111 ratio of spending time with samegender
o Crosscultural (universal)
o Biological role – generally consistent with sex
o Socialization – reared and treated according to anatomy
∙ Crosscultural perspectives on gender identity?
o Nonbinary gender diversity exists all over the world and through time Society’s role
∙ What are gender roles? How are they perpetrated?
o Gender roles: complex clusters of expectations for how males and females should behave
Socially prescribed
Defines expectation and interactions
∙ What are gender stereotypes?
o Stereotypes: a fixed, conventional assumption about a group of people Often a distorted generalization
Ingrained by adolescence
o How might these affect a person in their life?
Guides attitudes and behaviors
o Is there any truth to them: e.g. cognitive capabilities, aggression, and intuition? Not necessarily, depends of definition of each
Cognitive abilities
∙ Females somewhat better at verbal abilities, males somewhat better
at visual/spatial abilities
∙ Variability larger within sexes than betweensexes
Aggression
∙ Cros cultural similarities
∙ Girls more social alienation, boys more physical
Intuition
∙ Girls viewed as more intuitive, found to be mostly true
∙ Possibly evolutionary
∙ How does stereotyping lead to discrimination?
o Sexism may occur (implying certain negative traits on a particular sex) o May affect choices in education and career psychologically damaging Gender identity in archaeological record – guest lecture by Megan Hanna Fry ∙ What are common ways to identify gender? How does it become problematic? o Determine biological sex with aDNA, sexual dimorphism, and osteology o Osteology: pelvis, crania, metrics
o Identify gender: burial position, grave inclusions (material culture), burial orientation, burial location
o Problems
Preservation biases
∙ Soil acidity
∙ Postdepositional processes
∙ Environment (floods, earthquakes, etc.)
∙ Grave robbing
∙ Land use (farming activities, construction)
Ambiguous skeleton markers
Ambiguous, mixed, or absent grave furniture
Gender roles through history: huntergatherer, horticulture, agriculture societies and into the industrial revolution
∙ Foragers/HunterGatherers
o Small mobile groups, simple technology, egalitarian
∙ Horticultural: HG + plant cultivation
o Smallmedium mobile groups
∙ Agriculture: mediumlarge sedentary groups
∙ Industrial Age: very large sedentary groups and infrastructure
∙ What is division of labor and the hypotheses for the development of it? o Sexlinked activities
Division of labor based on gender varies between cultures
o Males often hunters and warriors
o Egalitarian with high cooperation
o Women main food providers/homemakers
∙ How did the World Wars impact gender roles?
o Women were doing mlebiased jobs
o Women in the military
WWI: mundane work
WWII: more active
o Only temporary
o Contributed to women’s rights movement
Do other primates have gender identity? What is selfawareness and how can we test it? ∙ Some argue uniquely human
∙ Selfawareness is major aspect to identity
o If primates have, cannot deny they may have a sense of gender identity o Test with mirrorself recognition studies
∙ What are the developmental stages to selfawareness and how does this match up with gender identity?
o 4 stages
Social response
Inspection
Repetition
Selfdirected
o For humans:
Selfrecognition by 2 years of age (50% by 18mos)
Understand people’s perceptions by 45yrs
Corresponds to gender identity development
Sexual Orientation: Hock Chapter 11
What is sexual orientation? What are the some of the sexual orientation categories we discussed? ∙ Sexual orientation: direction (sex/gender) of one’s romantiv interests and erotic attractions
o Not defined by sexual activity per se
o Complex and not always welldefined
o A continuum
∙ Some sexual categories:
o Heterosexuality (straight)
o Homosexuality (gay, lesbian)
o Bisexuality
o Pansexuality (gender identity and biological sex do not matter)
o Asexuality (not necessarily attracted to either sex)
o Questioning
o Queer
∙ Not a choice – core attractions emerge between middle childhood and early adolescence ∙ LBGT+ community
o Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transsexual, Queer, Quesitoning, Intersex, Asexual, Allies, and Pansexual
Alfred Kinsey’s research and scale
∙ Found sexual orientation to be a continuum
∙ Asserted that very few people could be classified as totally heterosexual or totally homosexual
∙ Kinsey Scale: 0 to 6
Coming out and the potential negative consequences
∙ Coming out: a gradual process that can occur at any age
o Typically, between adolescent and early adult years
o Potentially negative consequences due to prejudice and discrimination ∙ Negative consequences
o Prejudice
o Discrimination
o Bullying
∙ What are hate crimes and how do they relate to sexual orientation?
o Hate crimes: violent crimes motivated by prejudice and discrimination o Relate to sexual orientation because of gay bashing and homophobia o What has research indicated with regards to the psychology of hate crimes? Reaction formation as a defense mechanism
“Fear of being gay” – extreme and exaggerated behaviors in the opposite direction one’s unacceptable internal urges
To “prove that they could not possibly be gay”
Research support: men who scored the highest on the measure of
homophobia were the most sexually aroused watching gay porn
Historical perspectives on samesex behaviors
∙ Ancient Egypt, Greeks and Romans, Native Americans
o Ancient Egypt
Nonbinary
Malemale relationships
o Ancient Greeks and Romans
Adult males w/ adolescent males
Femalefemale
Flamboyance (Rome)
o Native Americans
“Twospirit” (thirdgender/gendervariant)
∙ Religious perspectives
o 12th century – hostility began to take root
Spread throughout European religious institutions
Sodomy and nonprocreative sexual acts sinful
Samesex practices condemned by most Christian and Jewish
denominations, and by Islam
US History
∙ Phyllis Lyon & Del Martin: Daughters of Bilitis (1955)
o Lesbian couple that started the first organization for lesbians
∙ Stonewall Inn in New York City, June 27, 1969
o Start of Gay Rights Movement
o Would have gay “beins”
∙ 1970s1980s American Psychiatric Association
o Removed homosexuality from Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
∙ Samesex marriage – what is the current acceptance?
o 2015: US Supreme Court legalized samesex marriage
Most states had already legalized
Joined over 20 other countries
o Gallup poll (2018): 67% of Americans back samesex marriage
80% of Democrats and 66% of Republicans
o Are there still issues?
Trump winding back on LGBTQ+ protections
Conservatives cite religious freedom to fight gay rights
Still legal to fire a person based on orientation status in most states
o Family rights and issues?
Have Assisted Reproduction Techniques (ART)
Adoption – 2017 legal in US
∙ States taking religious freedom stances against samesex adoptions
Does the origin of nonheterosexual behavior matter?
∙ We don’t question the origin of heterosexuality
o Part of sexual reproduction and to pass on genes
o Today’s Western society may choose not to have children
o Different conditions and pressures: overpopulation problem
∙ Genetic, cultural, developmental, and psychological factors interact to produce a person’s adult sexual orientation
∙ Search for origins/cause of homosexuality has historically been rooted in prejueices What are the four patterns of samesex behavior worldwide (crossculturally)?
∙ What is an example of each?
o Age Stratified – e.g. Sambia in Papua New Guinea
o Genderstratified – prison, military, and in cooccurrence with classstratified o Classstratified – high social standing seek submissive
o Egalitarian – Western culture
Primate samesex behaviors: Isosexual vs. sociosexual
∙ What is the difference and provide some examples?
o Isosexual (rarer):
Pleasure/orgasm (not social)
Masturbation, anal, oralgential behavior
MM < FF isosexual behaviors
o Sociosexual (all ages):
Facilitate social goal(s): bands, communication, deter aggression
Mount, embrace, genital present and touch, kiss, etc.
o Examples: different types of primates
∙ What are the influencing factors affecting higher instances of samesex behaviors in non human primates?
o Predominantly highly social primates (>70% of Apes and OW monkeys) Increased in promiscuous societies
Both captive and wild conditions
o Bisexuality in primates seems to be driven by increased sociality in species Sexual orientation and gender roles in church cultures – guest lecture by Amanda Yeargin ∙ Mandarinspeaking church
o Homosexuality is “similar to other sins like lying, arrogance, greed”
o Seen as a choice
o Would welcome anyone from LGBTQ+ community to join and attend their church but would try to show them what the bible says
∙ Catholic church
o Homosexual attraction no a sin, “homosexual sex” is a sin
o Seen as a choice
o Celibacy recommended
∙ LGBTQ+ friendly church
o Not seen as a sin
o Not seen as a choice
o Believe other churches has misinterpreted the Bible or taken figurative passages too literally
Sexuality through life: Hock Chapter 12
What are the four major patterns of growth in humans? Development, Maturation, Reproduction, lifespan and longevity
∙ Development: prenatal to puberty
∙ Maturation: puberty to adult
∙ Reproduction: adult – reproductive years
∙ Longevity and mortality: lifespan – postreproductive yrs
What are the common sexual responses or behaviors found in each of the following stages: ∙ Infants
o Erections in utero
o Vaginal lubrication and genital swelling
o Pelvic thrusting (~8 to 10 months)
o Bonding and attachment are essential for helathy development
∙ Childhood (36yrs)
o “Masturbation” may start as early as 5 months, generally 23yrs
o 35yrs: know this can be pleasurable, can orgasm
o 56yrs: children understand it needs to be private
o Punishment leads to shame and selfconsciousness
o By 3yrs old – interested in other kid’s and adult’s bodies
o Playing “doctor”
o Kissing common
o Gential play (roughandtumble play)
o Samesex behavior
∙ Preadolescence (Juvenile 7puberty)
o Sexually related rather than sexual
Masturbation: 45% of males and 15% of females by age 12
Samesex friends: mutual touching or masturbation
o Selfconsciousness sets in
∙ Adolescence (1019yrs)
o Puberty: physical and biological changes
Pituitary gland releases gonadotropin
∙ Boys ~11, girls ~8
o Secondary sex characteristics
o Reproduction maturation
o Cognition: emotional, social, and involvement in society and economics o Culturally: passage from childhood to adulthood
o Masturbation
Boys more than girls
o Petting: affection, satisfy curiosity, and reach orgasm
o samesex interactions
sense of sexual orientation
o incidence of kissing, “making out”, sexual intercourse, and oral sex increase with age
What are the three stages in adolescence and how is puberty involved?
∙ 3 stages:
o Early adolescence: 10 to 14 years old (puberty)
o Middle adolescence: 1517 years old
o Late adolescence/early adulthood: 1824 years old
∙ What major changes occur during adolescence?
o Secondary sex characteristics
o Reproductive maturation
o Sexual activity
Are teen relationships all that important?
∙ Emotionally fragile and susceptible to relationship violence
∙ Can impact development of individual sexuality
∙ >50% of adolescents
∙ Predictor of first sexual intercourse
What are the trends in US teen pregnancies?
∙ Teen pregnancies are mostly unplanned and unwanted
∙ Factors: no contraception and/or education
∙ Dramatic decline
How are STIs affecting teens and why is it such a problem?
∙ Teens see oral sex as “safesex”, but most STIs are readily transmitted this way ∙ 20 million new STIs each year
o 1524yo account for half
∙ Only consistent use of condoms and dental dams reduce risk
∙ 25% of college students have had >6 sexual partners
∙ Many STIs are asymptomatic
∙ Students resist being tested (embarrassment and fear)
What are some advantages to the digital lifestyles of teens regarding sex? What are some disadvantages?
∙ Disadvantages: sexting, nudes, bullying, addiction to phone
∙ Advantages: allows socialization and communication
College sexuality major issues: STIs and Alcohol and Drugs
∙ Same behaviors and issues as teen but very different environment ∙ Alcohol and drugs
o Unsafe practices
o Consent issues
∙ Binge drinking is a risk factor for sexual assault
∙ Many students don’t get tested even though their sexual partners may increase Adult sexuality: marriage and divorce effects
∙ Adult sexuality: typically, a focus on relationships
∙ Single, married, cohabitate, start a family (or not)
∙ Married (2018 NHSR): 44% of people
∙ Divorce: between 4050% of marriages in the US end in divorce o Overall has declined
o Samesex < straight couples
∙ Divorce effects: high rates of physical and mental illness and suicide o Children of divorce
Psychological, behavioral, and academic problems
Easier if both parents maintain their parenting responsibilities
∙ What is cohabitation and is it a solution to try out before marriage?
o Cohabitation: adults who live together as if married without legally marrying o Cohab couples who marry tend to divorce earlier, unless reach 7yr mark Over 60 and still loving it: What accounts for the large population growth of this age group? ∙ Declining fertility and increasing longevity
∙ Effects of aging on sexuality?
o Frequency of sex may decline, but not desire
o Empty nesters, birth control not an issue
o Regular activity is recommended
o Delayed response and reduced sensitivity
o Male: decline in testosterone levels
Progressively longer to achieve erection (less firm)
More time to reach orgasm (decrease in intensity)
o Female: decline in estrogen
Less vaginal lubrication
Vaginal walls lose elasticity
Orgasms have decreased intensity
Decreased libido
∙ What is ageism and why is it a big problem?
o Living, nursing homes
o Healthcare
o Mental health
o STIs
o People don’t realize elderly people see dating as teenagers do
Don’t use contraception because don’t worry about pregnancy, increases STIs
Evolutionary Perspectives: Ageing, early life deprivation, pairbonds
∙ Ageing
o Only examined in humans and rhesus macaques
o Humans: decrease frequency and erectile response
Impotence: <35yrs = 1%. 55yrs = 6.7%, by 75yrs = 55%
Erectile dysfunction 4060yrs
o Rhesus: decrease frequency
Fewer erections, mounts, intromissions, and ejaculations
Impotence is not reported in rhesus
∙ PairBonding and Consortships
o Pairbonds: allows for social complexity
Not just between mates
o Consortships: reciprocal behaviors
Male primates: mateguarding
Frequent in multiM, multiF societies
Successful strategy
∙ Early life deprivation
o Primate infants = long dependency
Mothers and caregivers important role in development
o Harlow (1950s): rhesus macaques
o Romanian orphans (1980s)
1. Replacement Behaviors
2. Social deficits and aggression
a. E.g. mating or forming bond
3. As adults – lack infant care skills
Sexual Arousal and Problems: Hock Chapters 3 and 7
The Excitement PlateauOrgasmResolution Model (EPOR) by William Masters and Virginia Johnson – four phases of sexual response
∙ Four part model – seamless process
o Not limited by partner or orientation
o Females and males differ
∙ Excitement Phase
o Sexual stimulation – individual variation
o Men: erections
o Women: vaginal lubrication and genital swelling
o Both: muscle tension (myotonia), increase heart rate, sex flush, erectile structure expand/enlarge (vasocongestion)
∙ Plateau Phase
o Leveling off of excitement phase
o Tenting: inner vaginal walls expand
o May be unnecessary as a separate phase
∙ Orgasmic Phase
o Muscle spasms
BP and HR peak
~ <15 seconds
Cariation
o Males: 2 stages
Emission
Expulsion
o Female: 3 to 15 muscle contractions
Spacing variable and may take longer
o Orgasm is a subjective experience
Female may not reach it or have multiple
∙ Resolution Phase
o Body gradually returns to prearoused state
o Women may return ot plateau phase or orgasmic
o Refractory period
∙ Criticisms?
o Number of stages
o Exaggerated focus on physiology (excludes relationship context)
o Generalizing to both male/female
o Also generalizing their differences
Only men ejaculate?
Only men have a refractory period?
One women have multiple orgasms?
Kaplan’s threestage model
∙ Added sexual desire, condensed E and P, deleted resolution
∙ Identifying and treating sexual dysfunctions
∙ Criticisms: overly simple and assuming desire is required at beginning Are aphrodisiacs pseudoscience?
∙ Aphrodisiacs: agents (e.g. food, fragrances) that are sexually arousing or that increase sexual desire
∙ Not scientific evidence
∙ Many are dangerous or actually decrease abilities
∙ Placebo effect
What are erogenous zones?
∙ Erogenous zones: areas sensitive to tactile stimulation
∙ Primary EZ = concentration of nerve endings
o E.g. genitals, inner thighs, buttocks, breasts, ears, lips, neck, etc.
o Individual preferences (biology and experience)
∙ Secondary EZ = sensitized through experience
∙ Brain: sexual thought, images, wishes, and fantasies
Why can females have multiple orgasms (evolutionary hypotheses)
∙ Human female endocrine surge mimics copulatory surge of species with induced ovulation (stimulated by external condition)
∙ Orgasm = ancestral reflex that induced ovulation
How to define a sexual problem: What are various sources for problems and know some examples
∙ Dysfunctions and disorders discussed related to interest, arousal, orgasm, and pain ∙ Influencers: Biology, psychosocial, use and abuse of recreational drugs, medications ∙ What is the new view on examining sexual problems?