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Final Exam Study Guide
1. The scope of Lifespan Developmental field
∙ Seen through different dimensions
o Physical (biology)
o Cognitive (mental processes over time like memory)
o Personality/social aspects (the forces of human growth such as cultural or social or personality aspects)
o All of these factors are intertwined
∙ Developmental science is an interdisciplinary science because everything is intertwined ∙ These psychologists normally look at a different age period (different developmental stage) o Must communicate with other experts to get full picture
∙ Age is seen as a social construction
∙ Focuses on humans
2. Influences on lifespan development.
∙ Influences can be divided into three categories
o Historygraded influences
Ex: The Great Depression
Effect is known as Cohort effect
Difficult to study as you need a good sample size and you need to eliminate alternative explanations
Cohort effect is rare to fully achieve
o Agegraded influences
Usually biological factors that affect certain age
Ex: puberty
o Socioculturalgraded influences
Ex: social class, culture and ethnicity
o
3. Cohort effect
∙ Provide an example of historygraded influences
o These are biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical moment o Cohort is a group of people born at around the same time in the same place If you want to learn more check out What is intent (mens rea)?
Ex: Baby boomers
4. Continuous vs discontinuous developmental change
∙ Continuous change
o Occurs gradually
o Changes are quantitative (numbers)
o Ex: height
∙ Discontinuous change
o Occurs in stages
o Changes are qualitative (explanation)
Different stages have different behaviors
o Ex: moral reasoning
5. Critical and sensitive periods
∙ Critical period
o Where a certain event or set of events have their most eminent and likely irreversible impact Event has its greatest consequences
∙ Sensitive period
o Where someone is most susceptible to a particular event/stimulusIf you want to learn more check out How are we different from animals?
Does NOT always produce irreversible effects
o There are more of these in human development
o Early childhood period is sensitive
∙ Security of attachment states a child needs care and if they are not given sensitive care, they will develop insecure attachment
6. Theories of developmental change
∙ Security of Attachment
o Sensitive, appropriate and consistent parenting style
o Secure attachment= independence and optimal social adjustment
o Explains social and emotional development
o Assumes that a child needs to feel secure to have child development attachment
o Not true that a parent has to give child everything they want
Need to provide what is needed, not everything wanted
o Not true that a secure attach child is needy
They will become independent and adjusted
o This attachment is most optimal
∙ Temperament
o Biologically rooted
o Foundation of personality Don't forget about the age old question of What is social deviance?
o Can influence relationships
o Children with difficult temperament are more likely to develop insecure attachment Don't forget about the age old question of What are the three components of criminal justice?
o Theory of mind is child’s understanding of another people’s mind
Preschool children develop false beliefs
∙ Measured with false beliefs task
∙ Box with crayons; children who have developed false belief will say Teddy bear says We also discuss several other topics like What is spatial diffusion?
crayons in box
∙ Psychoanalytic Theory
o Freud suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
3 aspects of personality as id, ego and superego
∙ Id is the raw, inborn part of personality that is present at birth
o Related to hunger, sex, aggression and irrational impulses
o Goal of the pleasure principal is to maximize satisfaction and reduce tension
∙ Ego is the part that is rational and reasonable
o Reality principal is when instincts are restrained to maintain safety and help
someone integrate into society
∙ Superego is person thinking between right and wrong
∙ Erikson theories of Psychosocial development
o Encompasses changes in our interactions with understanding of one another and our knowledge of ourselves as members of society
∙ Psychosexual development theory
o Freud states this occurs as children pass through a series of stages in which pleasure is focused on a particular biological function and body part
Oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital
Children become fixated if they get too little or too much from a stage
7. Common research methods
∙ Experimental
o Test cause and effect (advantage)
o Sometimes the IV can be manipulated (disadvantage) Don't forget about the age old question of What is the goal of marketing research?
∙ Correlational
o Address questions of association
o Do not change IV so can’t test cause and effect relationship (disadvantage)
o They can tell you link between variables (advantage)
o Ex: case studies and observational studies
∙ Longitudinal (change over time)
o Follows same person over time
o Can show the development of one person over time (advantage)
o Can’t be used to explain behavior as a whole (disadvantage)
∙ CrossSectional (age differences)
o Popular in studying age differences
∙ Sequential (within/age differences and cohort effects)
o The most informative but difficult
o Combines longitudinal and crosssectional
o Several people are followed over a period of time
8. The role of environment on the expression of genes
o Behavior is a combination of genetic and environmental factors
o Multifactorial transmission is determining traits with genetic and environmental factors o The environment determines the way in which a genotype will be expressed as phenotype o Genotypes are unaffected by environment
o Closer the genetic link, the greater correspondence between IQ scores
o According to Jensen 80% of intelligence is heredity
9. Genetic influences on personality and intelligence
o Neuroticism and extroversion have been linked to genetic factors
o Noveltyseeking gene affects personality
o Genetics and environment play a role
10. Can genes influence the environment; epigenetics
o Epigenetics is when the environment can affect our gene expression
o NOT genetic mutation which is change in DNA sequence
o Is a process by which a gene is switched on or off due to environmental influence
o With more care, children show less stress and more secure attachment
11. The origin and consequences of stress
o 3 main consequences of stress are physiological effects, harmful behaviors and indirect health behaviors o Increased blood pressure
o Increase use of drugs and alcohol
o Decrease in seeking medical help
o Origins of stress
o Childhood
Excluded from school, pressure to be at top, school, testing
o Adolescence
Academic and social stress, going to be late and waking up early
o Young adult
Education, job, longterm relationship
o Middle adulthood
Marriage, career, children, parenthood, goals
o Late Adulthood
Retirement, health issues, decrease in memory and strength and fear of decrease in
intelligence and sexual passion
12. Threats to wellness and health
o Most common health problem in children is runny nose from common cold
o Helps children build immunity
o In childhood children are susceptible to SIDS and physical injury from high levels of activity o Prevent SID by having baby lay on back
o Adolescents are susceptible to drugs, alcohol, tobacco and STI
o Use drugs to escape life or to enhance academic performance
o Susceptible to binge drinking
o Adults susceptible to body decline such as cancer, arthritis or heart disease
o Also, dementia and Alzheimer or stroke
13. Piaget’s approach to cognitive development
∙ Piaget’s approach
o Qualitative and occurs in stagelike progressions
o Sensorimotor
Ex: object permanence occurs in infancy
o Preoperational (symbolism): think about things that are not present
Egocentrism
Conservation error
Incomplete understanding of transformation
o Criticism
The transition through stags are not as abrupt as described
timing is not always accurate and may differ in different cultures and children with different education levels
Different tests may show better/worse understanding of stage
o Mainly about describing and explaining nature of children’s skills
14. The zone of proximal development
∙ The level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone more competent
∙ For cognitive development, new information must be presented within this zone
15. The foundations of information processing
∙ Approaches to cognitive development that seek to identify the ways that individuals take in, use and store information.
o Process by which information is encoded, stores and retrieved
Encoding is the process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to
memory
Storage is the maintenance of material saved in memory
Retrieval is the process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness and used
16. Differences between information processing approach and Piaget’s/Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development
∙ Vygotsky
o Focuses on Culture and social interactions
How social environment influences mental development
o Zone of proximal development
o Scaffolding
∙ Information Processing
o Gradual process
o Quantitatively different
o Focuses on encoding, storing, retrieving information
17. Approaches/Theories of Language Acquisition
∙ Learning theory approach
o Language is learned as an acquired skill
o Language acquisition follows the fundamental laws of reinforcement and condition of Skinner’s theory
Suggests that children learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that are close to speech and through shaping language becomes more similar to adult speech
∙ Nativist approaches
o There is a genetically determined mechanism that directs the development of language
People are born with an innate capacity to use language which emerges more or less
automatically through maturation, universal grammar and language acquisition device
∙ Interactionist perspective on language development
o Suggests that language development is produced through a combo of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances that help teach language
Argues that development is determined by the language that children are exposed and the reinforcement they receive for using language in. particular ways
∙ Social factors are the key to language development
18. Theories and Measures of intelligence
∙ Intelligence= Success in Life?
o IQ (looks at skills in abstract, analytical reasoning, problemsolving skills)
How we normally test intelligence
o 50% genetics and 50% environment is how you gain intelligence
o Predicts: school performance, staying in school
o Motivation
o SelfControl
o Emotional intelligence
These are better predictors of life success (above 3)
o Definition of intelligence is unknown, and we don’t know how to measure
o Nature: genetics
o Nurture: environment
∙ StandfordBinet Intelligence scale
o A test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of person being tested Test takers are given harder and harder problems until they can’t continue
∙ Wechsler Intelligence Scale
o Used for adults and children
Provides separate measures for verbal and nonverbal skills and a total score
∙ Kaufman Assessment
o Children are tested on their ability to integrate different kinds of stimuli simultaneously to use step bystep thinking
The test is flexible, and questions can be posed in different language to maximize
performance
o Gardner 8 intelligences theory
Suggests that we have at least 8 intelligences
o Vygotsky theory
Suggests that we should assess intelligence by looking at fully developed cognitive processes and processes in development
Explains concept of “reciprocal transaction” in sociocultural theory
o Sternberg triarchic theory
Suggests that intelligence is made up of three major components
∙ Componential aspect
o Involves mental components used to solve problems
∙ Experiential component
o The ability to cope with new situations and relate what they already know to
a situation
∙ Contextual component
o Demands of life; practical intelligence
19. Influences of Intelligence
∙ 50% genetics and 50% environment is how you gain intelligence
∙ Temperament and attachment
∙ Epigenetics
20. What is attachment; secure and insecure forms of attachment
o Attachment is the positive emotional bond the develops between child and person. Accompanied by feelings of pleasure for that person and comfort in times of distress
o Secure attachment is when the child uses the mother as a home base and are at ease when she is present and are upset when she leaves
o Avoidant attachment is when children do not seem close to mother and when mother leaves, they are not worried
o Disorganized attachment is when children show confused behavior toward mother
o Ambivalent attachment is when children show positive and negative reactions toward mother 21. What is temperament and personality
o Temperament is the patterns of arousal and emotionality a child displays and refers to how children behave and can be modified by different practices
o Personality is the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another o Traits are determined by genetics and the environment
22. The roots of selfawareness
o Theory of mind explains how children think
o Knowledge of oneself begins on average around 1724 months and is influenced by cultural upbringing o Child without selfawareness will not recognize themselves in photos or mirrors
23. How children develop a moral sense of self
o Theory of mind
24. The link between parental disciplinary styles and moral development/aggression ∙ Moral Development
o Kohlberg theory (father of psychology)
Based on Piaget’s theory
∙ Says moral reasoning is based on cognitive levels
Stagelike development of moral reasoning
Discontinuous/qualitative changes in moral thought
o Gilligan’s perspective on morality and gender differences
Influences of culture and societal norms
∙ Hates on Kohlberg as it was based on men
∙ States moral reasoning is based on social differences/norms
o Cross cultural studies support both, but culture seems to play a large role in cultural development o More information is needed to determine who is more correct
25. Contributors to Gender differences and gender identity
o Biological approach
o Sex leads to gender differences and exist in the structure of the brain
o Androgen and Corpus Callosum
o Cognitive approach
o The desire to act a certain way (mind)
o Gender identity is the perception of oneself as male or female
o Do this by developing gender schema
This is cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender
o Social Learning approach
o Children learn gender though models or rewards when they act a certain way
Influenced by media, TV and books
o Psychoanalytic approach
o When the anatomical differences becomes evident between sex
Similar try to be similar to samesex parent
o Gender is well established by the time children reach the preschool years as boys are rougher and girls have more organized plays and they play with samesex
26. Importance of social networks
o Helps children develop socially, cognitively and physically
o Peers are people who are about the same age or maturity level
o Provide emotional support, degree of understanding and helpful suggestions, material support and help in solving problems
27. Consequences of poverty
o About 15% of adolescents live in poverty
o Causes them to have lower education, unable to have medical care
o Can slow cognitive development and can cause people to have a hard time to adjust
o Can cause children to be shorter
28. Importance of early childhood education
o Children can benefit from education before they enroll in formal schooling
o Childcare centers focus on social and emotional rather than cognitive
o Preschools are designed to provide intellectual and social experiences
o School child care is aimed for disadvantaged children
o Preschoolers enrolled in child care centers can cause children to have better memory and IQ o Children who re younger than most children in grade suffer as a result of age difference 29. How culture defines us
o Plays a central role in determining who we are
o Acculturation is the change and adjustments that occur when groups of different people come into sustained firsthand contact
Integration is when the identification with own culture is strong and identification with
majority culture is strong
Separation is when identification with own culture is strong and identification with majority culture is weak
Assimilation is when identification with own culture is weak and identification with majority culture is strong
Marginalization is when identification with own culture is weak and identification with
majority culture is weak
30. The impact of socioeconomic status on development
o Lower status can cause children to be shorter as well as not develop cognitively