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Module 8
Reading Genocide and Mass Killing by Staub
● Instigators of violence include the continuing and increase of poverty
● The collapse of Soviet communism and resulting change in the international system had led to efforts by ethnic groups to gain independence and by minorities to assert rights
● Genocide: an attempt to eliminate, directly by killing them or directly by creating conditions such as starvation that lead to their deeath, a whole group of people.
● UN Genocide Convention defines genocide as “acts committed with the intent to destroy in part or in whole a national, ethical, racial, or religios group as such”
○ Does not mention the inclusion of political groups with Straub argues he does consider it genocide We also discuss several other topics like Who formulated the principles of natural selection and evolution?
○ Efforts to properly define genocide is not important to him
● Influences leading to mass killing and genocide are similar
○ Mass killing can be a way station to genocide
○ Prevention can only aim at group violence, not specifically at genocide
● Two primary instigators
○ Difficult life conditions
○ Group conflict
○ Selfinterest combined with first two can also lead to collective violence
■ Most commonly has led to violence by dominant groups against subordinate groups demanding more rights and violence against indigenous people arising
from the intention to their land
● Difficult life conditions: to satisfy needs for identity and connection, people often turn to a group. This group often elevates itself by putting down other groups
○ Create and ideology however often with another group as an enemy
● Cultural characteristics: some characteristics make it more likely for difficult conditions to rise ○ History of devaluation of a group of people
○ Very strong respect for authority (will turn to leaders with destructive ideologies and be more likely to obey direct orders for violence)
● Role of bystanders: can stop evolution of increasing violence but often stay passive ● Frequent form of conlift leading to collective violence is between dominant and subordinate groups We also discuss several other topics like Dimensions of sociocultural context refers to what?
○ Economic problems can also intensify conflict but loss of wellbeing, threat and frustration of basic needs and sense of injustice or deprivation is mostly intensified during difficult moments
● Frequently, dominant group responds with violence towards subordinate group ● Destructive leaders are themselves affected by social conditions (difficult life conditions or group conflict) and the group’s culture, the same way the group is affected
○ Woundedness of the leaders If you want to learn more check out Lack of marketable skills, is what?
● Influences contributing to genocide or mass killing include some form of war, an “abrupt” transition in regimes where leaders are unable to create a viable system
● Civil wars usually come about difficult life conditions
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● Positive factor: degree of economic interconnection between a particular state and other states ○ Less isolated a country is, less likely to engage in genocide
● Halting and preventing group violence
○ UN has been ineffective in doing this, do not see intervention as moral obligation or as serving their interests
● Early committed reactions and actions by the international community, before a strong commitment to violence could usually halt violence without the use of force
Halting violence
○ Special envoys to communicate the disapproval of the international community and consequences if violence continues
○ Offer help with mediation, conflict resolution, engagement with leaders to meet needs without violence
○ Involvement of international figures can help by affirming the identity of a group and a feeling of importance by group’s leaders
■ Can target leaders’ assets instead of people If you want to learn more check out What is the Keystone species?
● Crucial issue is early action: requires the creation and existence of a system that responds to info Preventing violence
● Focus on economic development
○ Give greater access to economic opportunities to subordinate groups
○ Groups must overcome devaluation or mutual hostility
Healing and reconciliation
● Members of victimized groups need to engage with their experience of pain, sorrow and loss under safe conditions
● Receive empathy, support, and affirmation from each other and people outside the group ● Reconciliation among victim and perpetrator groups who live together is essential to breaking the cycle of violence
○ Reconciliation involves members of both groups seeing the humanity of one another and developing acceptance and trust and FORGIVENESS
● Increase in social justice can provide a positive ground for these processes Don't forget about the age old question of What is Required Return?
● Bystanders and internal societal processes can make a difference in not allowing violence to increase
● Prevention of collective violence comes with knowledge on how to do this as well as to mobilize the international community to take action
● There is a need for an established system that has the task of preventing collective violence
Reading The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism by Pape
● Suicide terrorism follows a strategic logic, designed to coerce modern liberal democracies to make significant territorial concessions
○ Has been rising because terrorists realize it pays
● No good explanation for the growing phenomenon of suicide terrorism
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● Initial explanations have become insufficient on why this is used
● Until recently, leading experts in psychological profiles of suicide terrorists characterized them as uneducated, unemployed, soically isolated men in their late teens and early 20s
○ Now it does not matter the education, relationship status or age
● Suicide attacks are designed to achieve specific political purposes
○ Coerce a target government to change policy
○ Mobilize additional recruits and financial support Don't forget about the age old question of What are Norms?
● Suicide terrorism as “the rationality of irrationality”
○ An act that is irrational for individual attackers is meant to demonstrate credibility to a democratic audience that more and greater attacks will come
○ Becoming a coercive instrument of choice
Effectiveness of suicide terrorist attacks
1) Suicide terrorism is strategic logic
a) Usually occur in clusters as part of a larger campaign to accomplish a goal
2) Strategic logic specifically designed to coerce modern democracies to make significant concessions to national selfdetermination
3) Suicide terrorism has been steadily rising
4) More ambitious suicide terrorist attacks will not likely achieve greter gaines and fail a) One way to contain suicide terrorsm is to reduce terrorists’ confidence on ability to carry out attacks on a target society
● The main purpose of suicide terrorism is to use the threat of punishment to coerce a target government to change policy, especially to cause democratic states to withdraw forces from territory terrorists view as their homeland.
● Records of suicide terrorist attacks show tendencies in
○ 1) timing: all suicide attacks occur in organized, coherent campaigns, not as isolated or randomly timed incidents
○ 2) nationalist goals: direct at gaining control of what the terrorists see as their national homeland territory, specifically at ejecting foregin forces from that territory
○ 3) target selection: all campaigns have been targeted at democracies in the past 2 decades ● Demonstrative terrorism: directed at gaining publicity ro recruit more activists, gain attention to grievances and to gain attention from third parties who might exert pressure on the other side. ○ Do not want to intentionally harm people to not undermine sympathy to their cause ● Destructive terrorism: more aggressive, wants to coerce opponents and mobilize support for the cause
○ Seek to inflict harm
● Suicide terrorism: most aggressive form, attacker does not expect to survive a mission and mission involves his death
○ Maximizes coercive leverage but greatest cost is support for their cause
Reading Humanitarian Intervention and Peace Operations by Farrell
● Humanitarian intervention: can come through emergency aid in the form of money, medicine, food and expertise
● However, lately it is the forcible military intervention in humanitarian crises
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● Arose during post Cold War
○ During the Cold War it was rare because SovietAmerican standoff dominated international politics, there was insufficient public pressure for the great powers to do anything to ameliorate Third World conflicts and Cold War politics prevented
international collaboration in suppressing Third World conflicts or punishing murderous states
● New interventionism: increase in number and scale of military interventions by UN forces ○ Incentives for intervention have come from public pressure on Western gov’ts ● Humanitarian efforts have become more complex affairs with wider range of tasks including protecting territory, people and aid operations, disarming belligerents, policing demilitarized sites, running elections and helping reconstruct government police forces and armies ● Difference between traditional peacekeeping and current peace enforcement ○ Consent used to be central to the traditional peacekeeping but now peacekeepers need the ability to threaten and use force
● If peace operation uses too much force it risks losing its impartiality and crossing the consent divide into open conflict
○ However, peacekeepers must also be prepared to use sufficient force to counter peace spoilers
● Consent divideinduce consent is debate between intervention optimist and intervention pessimist ○ Intervention optimist: international community can forcibly rebuild states and reform murderous ones: operational success depends on the ability to induce consent if required ○ Intervention pessimist: little can be done about humanitarian disasters without the consent and cooperation of the major parties involved: all is lost if peacekeeping force crosses the consent divide
● CNN Effect and bodybag effect is misleading
○ CNN effect: televised images of humanitarian suffering can produce public demand for intervention but underestimates the extent to which political elites can frame media debate to affect the place and timing of intervention
○ Bodybag effect: assumption that casualties can lead to a collapse in public support for intervention, underestimates the public's stomach casualties.
● In practice, peace operations breach four of the main principles of war
○ Objective, unity, mass and surprise
Module 9
Reading Human Security and Global Governance: Putting People First by Axworthy ● Shift to see protection of people as a principal concern
● This shift has been gaining momentum since the end of WW2
● Human security puts people first and recognizes their safety as integral to the promotion and maintenance of international peace and security
● Some current challenges include
○ Links between local conflict and international economy impacting vulnerable communities
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○ Suffering of vulnerable populations in war
● Axworthy believes the international discourse on human security is beginning to effect change in institutions of global governance
● Globalization has made individual human suffering an irrevocable global concern ● Group of 8: “culture of preservation” stating the means of war to be restricted by limiting access to availability of small arms and light weapons
● Rethinking intervention lead to necessary reforms of international institutions ○ Using UN Security Council requires broadening of security concept, new operating methods and transparency
○ Critique: too many pressing security issues and too many voices need to be heard are excluded
● UN depends on the willingness of states or regional alliances to carry out the work of maintaining international peace and security
○ Promoting human security globally also requires the gov’t working more closely with the nongovernmental sector private sector beginning to develop responsibility initiatives for domestic and international operations
● Corporations must develop enunciated principles and guidelines regarding corporate social responsibilities to better navigate difficult ethical decisions
● Role of NGOs
○ Bring technical expertise and experience to policymaking process
○ Work with governments to implement international agendas
○ Mobilize human and financial resources to help solve local and global problems ○ Work to end human suffering and hold governments accountable
● Activism is enhanced by information technology
○ Network and ecommerce have impact on how businesses conduct worldwide ○ The use of information systems for human security can change politics of human security but development has been primitive
● Actualizing the concept of human security requires all actors to act responsibly ○ Develop codes of conduct
○ Work to establish new international norms
○ Incorporate human dimension into the work of international orgs
Reading Political Community and Human Security by Linklater
● Refugees can continue experiencing threats to their security when they get to a new land ● States must monitor the strength of neighboring or threatening powers and make sure counterweights are in place as quickly as possible
● Machiavelli’s definition would be to regard security as the “absence of threats” ○ Argued that humans would be more secure under democratic governments in which they are involved in decisions about their collective life
● Realism: state is the safe haven that protects citizens from intrusions of anarchy and disorder ○ States provide security for their citizens and render each other insecure by preparing for
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war
● States can be sources of insecurity in 3 ways
○ 1. Migrants and minority nations do not enjoy the protection of rule of law and rights ○ 2. Source of insecurity for their own citizens with direct and reckless foreign policy behavior
○ 3. Source of insecurity to each other
● Realists are very suspicious about optimistic claims that cooperation can go far in the context of anarchy
○ Waltz argues that strategic action is the norm
● Opponents of realism disagree on how far security communities can develop ○ Will last as long as they have support from dominant powers (can always be destroyed by hostile powers)
● Critical theorists: nothing in international anarchy makes competition and conflict permanent features of world politics
● Conventional security studies: concerned with how states interact with one another, not focusing on how they treat their national citizens
○ Competing position found in the writings of Kant who believes popular checks on executive power would bring an end to war neglected the desperate logic of international anarchy
● Insideout analysis: in liberal international political theory states that the way in which states treat national citizens is not simply a domestic matter that can be ignored in accounts of external affairs
● Liberal approach to security: enlarges the realm of human interaction. Criticized for privileging negative liberty and property rights over values of community, solidarity, and equality ○ Feminists argue it allows for patriarchy to remain untouched
● Kantian Approach to human security: more than a normative theorist
○ Advances in communicative action plays a vital role in solving or reducing human conflicts
○ No theory or resolution kits that explain communal conflict
○ Kantian project in IR surpasses realize by combining problemsolving and critical concerns in an analysis that begins with the prospects of radical breakthroughs in communicative action
○ Empathy and understanding exist in realize but often illustrate limited problemsolving orientation
○ Kant recognized that violence would remain an essential feature of world politics ○ Less concerned with recommending specific course of action than highlighting cognitive changes that should happen
○ Agreed with classical realists in saying deep and lasting solutions require greater empathy and understanding
● Blend realism with more utopian concerns
○ Two main groups in those immediately binding on political subjects and those that can only be realized gradually
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● Critical theory in Kantian mode insists that moral universals do not require the dissemination of any specific form of life
○ Requires willingness to engages those who may be harmed by one’s actions in an open dialogue in which all human differences are treated with respect and no prior assumptions ● Conclusion: Deutsh argued that security ultimately requires a shift from strategic to communicative orientation towards others
○ Elements of this exist within classical political realism however have not been developed very far due to pessimistic analysis of world politics assuming communicative action might ease tensions but not solve problems
○ Critical theory believes there are no systemic barriers to breakthrough communicative action
● Realism: empathy and understanding as important ways to mitigate the worst effects of international anarchy but does not believe it can provide a foundation for alternative world order ● Critical theory: empathy and understanding can provide a bridge to a world involving principles of publicity, dialogue, and consent
○ Requires establishment of political structures that guarantee effective participation in dialogic arrangements
Reading Human Security: A Shotgun Approach to Alleviating Human Misery? by Khong ● Before the 1980s, the notion of national security was to preserve states
○ Ability of states to defend themselves
● By 1990s, notion of security has been broadended to incorporate areas such as economic privation, environmental degradation and gender discrimination.
● Once an issue is “securitized” it becomes an urgent issue which gets special attention and resources towards a resolution
○ Next step would be to securitize individual human beings
● 3 major pitfalls of attempts to “securitize” the individual human being
○ Generating false priorities: difficult to decide what to prioritize, making all individuals a priority benefits none.
○ Generating false hopes: increases probability their plight will be lightened. In most cases, securitization will not lead to significant improvement.
○ False causal assumptions: is not the real issue how much of our safety we have to give up for peace? Alleviation of human insecurity does not necessarily mean greater peace and security ex. Getting rid of nuclear weapons during the Cold War
● Do not extend security of the individual into security studies if we do not have the capacity or willingness to prioritize all the human security dilemmas and devote the proper resources to help solve these issues
Reading Gender, Resistance and Human Security by Hoogensen and Stuvoy ● Gender approaches deliver more credence and substance to a wider security concept ○ Also enable a theoretical conceptualization more reflective of security concerns that emanate from the ‘bottom up’
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● Authors incorporate gender theory to develop human security as an epistemological perspective to security studies
● Gender theory claims that security must be linked to empowerment of the individual as well as the capabilities to create positive environments of security
● Tool of resistance as crucial example of human agency in security
○ Practices of resistance in all social contexts
Module 11
Reading Is the Environment a National Security Issue? By Levy
● Looks at discussion of environmental degradation constituting a security risk. ● Is global environmental degradation a security threat to the US?
○ Existential perspective has no basis, only used to drum up support for measures to protect our environment
■ Argues that certain aspects of the global environment are intimately connected to our deepest national values that are in our security interests
○ Physical perspectivedirect physical link between environment and US security has arguments worth considering but arguments require difficult assessments of competing alternative responses
■ Better policy consists of combination of “containment” and “coexistence”
○ Political perspective indirect, political threat from environmental degradation (environmental refugees, resource wars) both weakest threat to US security and strongest intellectual challenge to the field of security studies
■ US has least to fear from political conflicts caused by environmental harm
however this is the area researchers have the most catching up to do
● Need to do more research on what causes conflict, not on the environment
Reading Health Security and International Relations Theory By Jeremy Youde ● Redefining national security to include issues of health and infectious disease makes the concept of security more relevant to the challenges states face now postCold War era
● Many within security studies community reject notion of changing concept of security to include infectious disease and health
○ Claim it does not pose the same existential threat to a state’s livelihood
● Main argument: health security does have an important role in debates over international security however advocates have approached the debate in a wrong manner
○ Instead of attempting to come up with new ideas, it would be better to use engaging existent theories within traditional confines of security studies
● Infectious disease control can be integrated into three major schools of thought 1) Neorealism 2) Neoliberalism 3) Constructivism
● Example of Aztecs being wiped out by Spanish shows impact of infectious diseases on a population’s survival
● Neorealists military power is the most crucial part of changing international system and understanding how current international system came to be.
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● They should realize the tremendous impact health can have on the physical security of a state ○ Fail to realize AIDS has had an incredible impact on the military of southern African nations. Many soldiers carry this disease and have no idea, it is hard to find noninfected recruits to replace the ones who are sick.
■ Loss of Officer Corps can also breakdown discipline and effectiveness
■ Pool of people to get new officers from is declining
● Neoliberalism focus on role of economics also applies to the issue of AIDS by causing inflation and pressure on interest rates.
○ Ex. AIDS decreases size of labor pool, even replacing people with others decreases worker productivity since they are not experienced or other workers drop out to care for their sick families
■ Criticize economic system for not providing life saving medicine to people in Southern Africa while supplying it to other less industrialized countries
○ AIDS adds to neoliberal understanding because it directly impacts the complex interdependence that characterizes the international community
■ No state will want to form a relationship with a state whose population is too ill to be economically productive
○ Health security concerns such as AIDS impact how the economic international community relations emerge and maintain themselves
● Constructivists focus on changing perceptions and identities. Infectious diseases like AIDS can lead to a “we must protect ourselves from them”
○ At first, AIDS was only in gay men and drug users so not many resources were put into studying and having treatments for it however when it started affecting people, the perception of its importance changed
○ Perception of Africa: country cannot take care of itself. Leaders do not do a good job of dealing with the spread of AIDS
Reading Feminist Approaches to Human Trafficking By Jennifer Lobasz
**READ LAST PAGE AND A HALF FOR SUMMARY.
● Traditional security approaches call for emphasis on border security, migration controls, and international law enforcement cooperation
● Traditional security scholars worry first about the security of the sovereign state ○ Traffickers itself do not only pose a danger to the women who have been trafficked but the state itself as well
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● Feminists see international human trafficking as a violationg of human rights which demostrates a threat to the state as the state neglects the voices of trafficked personsw who they are legally obligated to protect
○ States need to shift focus from state security to the security of people
● Feminist approaches similar to the concept of human security
○ Difference is that feminist approaches study gender stereotypes and how society creates categories of practices, perpetrators and victims
● Feminists have made 2 essential contributions to the analysis of international human trafficking that benefit a reformulated approach to human trafficking in security studies
○ 1) expanding focus of trafficking analyses to account for exploitation of trafficked persons
○ 2) pay attention to how the concept of human trafficking is socially constructed in the first place
● Human trafficking does not present military threat however presents threat to national security on transnational organized crime and security of state borders
○ Human trafficking supplements more traditional criminal activities such as drug trafficking, vehicle theft, arms trafficking, and money laundering
○ Brings threat to borders since often involves undocumented migrants: difficult to differentiate between immigrant smuggling and trafficked persons
● Feminists argue that victims of human trafficking routinely experience a violation of their human rights
○ Many of them do not consent to immigrate or are misled: do not consent to the treatment they receive once arriving to their host countries
● Some corrective measures taken place include the UN or EU placing victims in housing with food and healthcare until they decide if they wish to help authorities
○ Feminists disagree with this because it shows the security of the state above the needs of the victims
● Human trafficking extends beyond sex trafficking
● Feminist critics of abolitionism argue that sex work is not synonymous with human trafficking ○ Argue that legalizing sex work and prositution can allow for these women to have access to resources to prevent abusive conditions
● Definition of trafficking victims as naive and innocent is tied up with the stereotype of the purity of the white women and impurity of women of color
○ Issue produced outrage in Europe when it involved white women
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Module 12
Reading “Let us Now Praise Great Men” by Byman & Pollack
● The decisions of individuals have a huge impact in history
● Political scientists contend that individuals count for little in major events in international politics ○ It is deemed by anarchic system, domestic politics and institutional dynamics ● Byman and Pollack argue against political scientists and intends to question scholars’ assumptions about international politics and the plausibility of analyzing international relations by focusing on the role of the individual
○ Goals, abilities and foibles of individuals are crucial to the intentions, capabilities and strategies of a state
■ Individuals can affect the reactions of other nations
● Waltz contends that the behavior of nations is driven by their position within the anarchic international system
○ Objection 1: Argues that human nature is constant which means that since we are not always at war, human nature cannot explain why some nations go to war
○ Authors say he is mistaken: human nature is a variable, not a constant
○ Objection 2: Theories focused on the influence of individuals in IR cannot be parsimonious
○ Objection 3: State intentions are not germane to theories of IR
○ Individuals do not have an impact since they all have same goal: remain dominant for their own security
Cases of the impact of individuals on international relations
Adolf Hitler
● Germany and its people did not want to go into a war to achieve more, they only wanted their pre WWI status
● Hilter’s aspirations included conquering the entire world
○ His personality cannot be compared to none other since he would destroy anything and anyone who got in the way of his goal
● At first, more European countries were willing to give in to at least some of the German demands under Hitler in order to avoid another world war
○ The demands to appease Germans were met however it did not appease Hitler’s own ambitions
● WWII was caused by the aspirations of Adolf Hitler, not the desire of the German population to revise the order of the Treaty of Versailles
○ The initial invasion of Poland did not lead France and Britain to wage war, it was the notion that they believed Hitler would not stop until he was master of all of Europe ● Beginning of the end of Hitler’s Reich was his invasion of Russia which was against what the German generals wanted
Bismarck & Willhelm II
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● Year 1890 is seen as turning point in German foreign policy because of the change in leadership shown in Germany’s alliances and foreign policy posture
● Bismarck chose to cover its basis by protecting Germany both on the East and West however when his successor, Wilhelm II, took over he took apart all the positive things he had done ○ Drove a fleet in front of London, destroyed the alliances with Britain, France and Russia who in turn became anti Germany
○ He tried to frightened other states instead of Bismarck’s method of promoting peace
Napoleon
● His military skills were so great that as an individual he affected the balance of continental power and convinced other states to move against him as much as against France
● The wars France was apart of cannot only be blamed on Napoleon
Conclusions
● These leaders can be viewed as exceptions however cannot look at the history of international relations without looking at them
● Looking at the importance of individuals is necessary to explode the cult of inevitability ○ Argues that just because an event occurred does not mean it was fate to happen
Reading “Sex Among Allies: Military Prostitution in US/Korea Relations” by Moon ● “American Town” in Korea is a known walledoff town in which American soldiers and registered Korean prostitutes meet
● Some fair well: they are pushed to force the soldiers to buy drinks and then the bulk of their income comes from sleeping with them
○ Some can get aggressive and kill them however there are cameras in place to make sure pimps receive their pay or prostitutes do not run away
● Most prostitutes did not describe their pimps or managers as being kind; they often take a huge part of their profit or do not pay them at all
● The “debt bondage system” is when the woman’s debt increases every time she asks for money from her manager
● Poverty and low class status is primary reason women enter camptown prostitution in 1950s to mid 1980s, majority had experienced abuse, neglect, or experience it after
● Vast majority of prostitutes lack formal education which does not help them negotiate or protect themselves from GI’s or their managers
● Economic independence of the American soldiers: the prostitutes ressettle whenever the soldiers move to however it has declined since soldiers have left Korea
○ The camps would be booming when most soldiers would be there
● Prostitutes often made fun of GI’s who could not afford a lot
○ Compared them to the spending of Korean men
○ Criticized the US and their economy because of this, big sensitivity and resistance to US dominance in camptown life
● There’s a growing antiAmericanism in Korea, feelings of admiration and respect are gradually
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being replaced
Video Sex Among Allies
● Nonelite individual matter in international relations matter as well
● The role of South Korea prostitutes in constructing US and South Korea relationships 1950s to 1970s which impacted Korean and Cold War
● US provided most of Korea’s military capacity during the war
○ Fought to standstill with the border being put in between
○ Neither militaries are allowed to cross the borders demilitarized zone
● U.S has protected South Korea in the after years
○ Their presence has been there since their presence formally ended (combat presence) ● Combat presence away from home, no family, just to be a soldier
○ Single young men go to South Korea and want adventure and thrill which is where the camptown prostitution comes in
● The availability of these womens’ bodies to American soldiers was one of the factors that affected the outcome of the Korean War.
● Remains legal in South Korea and the military presence as well
Module 15
Reading “A New Agenda for Security and Strategy?” by Wirtz
● Developes utilitarian assessment of environmental, resource, population, and planetary defence to discover if strategy, military force, or existing strategic literature can address issues of creating casualties, damage to personnel property or economic prosperity
● During Cold War, high politics dominated national security agendas
○ War and peace, nuclear deterrence and crisis management, summit diplomacy, arms control, and alliance politics
● Low politics were perceived as source of trouble but never a threat to national security ○ The environment, management of scarce resources, efforts to constrain population growth ● Starting late 1980s, observes begin to believe that nontraditional issues (low politics) should be placed at the top of national security agendas
● Rise to prominence of low politics
○ Realists: overarching preoccupation with Cold War was gone so issues once considered lesser than threats now appeared more important. Management of these global issues are now more possible since lone superpower US used its leverage for good
○ Neo Institutionalists: probably add that new forms of transnational management are increasingly more important in world affairs. Prominent role played by IGO’s such as the UN or even other movements tackling tough issues.
■ These local organizations help push global issues onto national agendas but also help initiate and coordinate international responses to transnational problems
● Communications revolution has led for people across the globe to orchestrate campaigns with the internet
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○ International boundaries are weak barriers to the problems that afflict the poorest parts of the world
● Low politics perceived more important after Cold War
○ Only difficulty is discern how military strategy can help respond to issues of the environment and population
● Malthusian scenarios remain popular to justify treating environmental issues as security problems ● Defining social and environmental issues as national security problems come with costs and risks ● Although population growth rates are slowing, total world population will continue to increase for next 30 years
● Future population increases will be centered in the developing world, leading to concentration of young people in megacities
● Tragedy of the commons generally produced by international failures to undertake collective protection of the environment or to conserve resources
○ Issues and effects are too much for only one state to handle
● Resolution of commons issues lie beyond realm of strategy
● A variety of factors are causing spread of infectious diseases, especially in developing world ○ Refugee movements, unprotected sex, modern technology and production practices not being fullproof, land use practices and efforts to restore natural habitats can spread diseases, international travel and commerce spread viruses
● New strains of drugresistant diseases are emerging
○ Widespread use of antibiotics in livestock and overuse of antibiotics by people lead to evolution of drugresistant microbes
● Existing international law prevents the construction of a planetary defence system ● If there is a threat and strategy or military force does nothing to help the issue, it does not mean it is minimizing the issue: it just cannot fight it
● This reading offers mixed assessment of the ability of strategy or military force to respond to or be shaped by global issues
Reading “Conclusion: The Future of Strategic Studies” by Lawrence Freedman ● Strategic studies undertaken outside universities and initially influenced by physical sciences and engineering
● Questioned a lot after Cold War: created the conditions for the development of the subject ○ Risk that strategic studies would be caught between scholarly virtues and disciplinary organization required by universities
● Realism has been challenged for being simplistic, for making exaggerated claims for its objectivity and for disregarding domestic and transnational factors
○ Some view realism as being preoccupied with armed force to the exclusion of peaceful means of exerting influence and resolving disputes, to the point of legitimizing armed force as an acceptable instrument of policy
● Way forward: course of history can be altered by the choices made by individuals, groups, and
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governments. Provide subject matter for strategic studies
● Armed forces provide starkest choice that can be confronted and provide a natural starting point for any attempt to create a general theory of strategy while organized violence poses a series of challenges that deserves special study
● Shifting policy needs made it difficult to establish the academic study of strategy in universities ● Gave way to professional trained civilian strategists
● Cold War strategy was relatively simple, focusing particularly on the requirements of deterrence ● Even before 1991, field of strategic studies became more diffuse as the political context of international relations changed
● Opening of a new era of ethnic conflict in the 1990s presented strategists with a more complex international environment that required a wide range of new expertise
● In post ColdWar period, uncertainty predominated and policymakers became less interested in what academic strategists had to say.
○ Number of scholars turned their attention to what was regarded as the academically more respectable pursuit of the study of theory and methodology
● Tensions inevitably exist between the academic and policy worlds with their different responsibilities
● “Practitioners” often complain about the irrelevance of academic studies to immediate problems they face
● Strategic reality is wide ranging and interdisciplinary and does not fit neatly into the narrow focus of most university departments
● Strategic studies, with its focus on individual actors and the importance of deliberate political choice, poses problems for the social sciences, which emphasize wider patterns of behaviour and the limited opportunities for achieving change
● Strategists are “voyeurs”, scrutinizing the choices made by others concerned with difficult decisions about the role of armed forces
● Strategic studies can be seen as an intellectual approach to specific problems rather than a distinct field of study
● Despite critiques of realism, there are elements of this school of though that remain useful in the study of strategy, while there are other elements that can be brought up to date
○ Critiques: simplistic and obsolete, bound up with assumption that the only choices that matter are those that states make about military power. Exclusion of peaceful means of exerting influence and resolving disputes
● Case can be made for nondogmatic realism
○ Provides more subtle approach to the role of power in international politics than neo realist approach, which emphasizes the structural constraints on state behavior
● Newer constructivist approaches help focus attention on the important dynamic relationship between ends and means, which is crucial in the outcome of any conflict
● A new realism requires a broader focus than in the past to understand the nature of presentday conflicts, but care must be taken not to overlook the traditional role of armed force ● Strategy is present wherever there is politics and political ends can be met without violence, force often becomes the ultimate arbiter of political disputes
INR FINAL
● Despite attempts to apply the “war” analogy ever more widely, strategic studies remains a subject which focuses on the role of armed force both in peacetime and in war
● Study of strategy should help understand how individuals go about history making and reshaping their circumstances
○ Suggests pushing study of strategy to extremes
○ Strategists will remain relevant if they can keep in touch with the range of possible situations that might tend to extremes
Reading “Beyond Critical Security Studies” by Ken Booth
● Important to move toward CSS which involves developing a body of knowledge that exposes the weaknesses of prevailing ideas and at the same time opens our minds to different ways of thinking and doing
● The Critical Theory Tradition
○ Feeder roads include Frankfurt School (accept they are part of a social process), neo Gramscians, Marxian tradition
Main themes
● All knowledge is a social process: knowledge does not simply exist, can be found in historical knowledge from concrete contexts
○ “For some one or for some purpose”
● Traditional theory promotes the flaws of naturalism and reductionism: reductionism is flawed and needs to be replaced by a more holistic perspective
● Critical theory offers a basis of political and social progress
● The test of theory is emancipation
● The radical International Relations Tradition: what is real in world politics and what values might inform the praxis of global politics in human interest
○ Feeder roads are progressive include Social Idealism (human society is conceived as self constituted and international politics regarded as just another aspect of humanmade reality), Peace Research and Peace Studies School, Feminist theorizing
Main themes
● Human society is its own invention: political violence is a learned behavior, not an inevitable feature of human social interaction
● Regressive theories have dominated politics among nations
● State and other institutions must be denaturalized: human institutions are historical phenomena, not biological necessities.
● Progressive world order values should inform the means and ends of an international politics committed to enhanced world security