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STUDY GUIDE FOR EXAM #2
BIOLOGY 125
Chapter 19 Blood
1. Review our discussion of the components of blood. Know the major components and be able to quantify them.
a. b. When blood sample is centrifuged:
i. Top – plasma – 55% of total volume
ii. Middle – leukocytes and platelets (buffy coat) – 1% of total Blood
Volume
iii. Bottom – erythrocytes (hematocrit) – 44% of total volume
2. What blood components are visible after centrifuging a blood sample? a. Plasma – Buffy Coat – Erythrocytes/Hematocrit
3. What is a hematocrit?
a. Portion of the blood that consists of erythrocytes
4. What is a normal pH of blood?
a. 7.357.45 – relatively constant, buffering systems
5. Review our discussion of plasma and its components.
a. 90% Water – dissolves & transports solutes
b. 9% Plasma Proteins
c. 1% of other Solutes –
i. Albumin – maintains osmotic pressure
ii. Immune Proteins – bind and transport hydrophobic compounds
iii. Clotting Proteins – stop blood loss from damaged vessels
iv. Glucose/Amino Acids – nutrition – protein synthesis
We also discuss several other topics like What are the roles of plasma?
v. Ions – electrolyte/acidbase homeostasis
vi. Dissolved Gases – oxygen deliver to tissues; CO2 deliver to lungs Don't forget about the age old question of Who explores the louisiana purchase lands?
vii. Wastes – deliver to appropriate organ for excretion
6. What are the functions of the erythrocytes?
a. Gas Exchange –
i. Hemoglobin releases oxygen into tissues surrounding systemic capillary beds where oxygen concentration is low
ii. Binds to CO2 forming carbaminohemoglobin where oxygen levels are low
7. Describe the anatomy of an erythrocyte and its’ components.
a. RBC – biconcave disc:
i. Flatten, donut shaped
ii. Concave on both sides
b. Mature RBCs – anucleate (during maturation) – lack most organelles
8. Where do erythrocytes originate? Leukocytes?
a. Erythrocytes – red bone marrow, reticulocyte
b. Leukocytes – hematopoietic stem cells
9. Review what we discussed you need to know regarding the production of erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.
a. Erythrocytes –
i.
If you want to learn more check out What is a veneer?
ii. b. Leukocytes –
i. Stem Cells – Hematopoietic stem cell, Myeloid cell line, lymphoid cell line
ii. Committed Cells
iii. Precursor Cells
iv. Mature Leukocytes – granulocytes and agranulocytes
c. Platelets – reticulocyte – thrombopoiesis
i.
10. Review our discussion of the regulation of erythropoiesis. What is erythropoiesis? a. Erythropoiesis – the process of differentiation and maturation of erythrocytes b.
11. Review the anemias we discussed in lecture.
a. Iron deficiency Anemia – caused by:
i. Inadequate dietary iron intake
ii. Reduced intestinal absorption of iron
iii. Slow blood loss
b. Anemia of Chronic Disease
i. Develops as result of underlying disease state – cancer
ii. Interferes w/ iron transportation from liver to red bone marrow
c. Pernicious anemia
i. Vitamin B12 deficiency
ii. Interferes with DNA synthesis of dividing cells Don't forget about the age old question of Who is homer?
iii. Including hematopoietic cells in bone marrow
d. Sicklecell disease
i. Single copy of defective gene – sicklecell trait – asymptomatic
ii. Two defective copies – sickle cell disease – produce abnormal
hemoglobin, hemoglobin S (HbS)
1. When oxygen lvls are low, RBCs containing HbS change into
sickle shape – erythrocyte destruction in BV
2. Don't forget about the age old question of In which way does sex differ from gender?
12. Review the granular and agranular leukocytes and know the functions of each. a. Leukocytes – defends body against foreign substances WBCs
b. Granulocytes –
i. Neutrophils – phagocytic leukocyte that kills bacteria
ii. Eosinophils – destroys parasitic worms, mediates allergic response
iii. Basophils – releases histamine during inflammation
c. Agranulocytes –
i. Monocytes – transforms into a macrophage after it leaves blood and enters tissue
ii. Lymphocytes – matures in lymphoid tissue of red bone marrow and
thymus
1. T lymphocyte – destroys virally infected and cancer cells
2. B lymphocyte – secretes antibodies
13. Where do erythrocytes and leukocytes mature?
a. Erythrocytes – mature in red bone marrow
b. Leukocytes – mature in thymus gland
14. Review the process of hemostasis.
a. Vascular Spasm – blood flow thru injured vessel decreases
b. Platelet plug formation If you want to learn more check out What is considered a minority?
c. Coagulation – intrinsic and extrinsic pathways produce Factor Xa
i. Common pathway produces thrombin
ii. Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin
iii. Platelet plug is glued together
d. Clot retraction – clot retracts
e. Thrombolysis – plasmin degrades fibrin – clot dissolves
15. Review our discussion of the coagulation cascade. What are some of the key elements needed?
a. Xa
b. Prothrombin III – Thrombin IIIa
c. Fibrinogen I – Fibrin
16. Review and understand the ABO blood typing method. When given scenarios, determine which blood type can be donated and received. What is the universal donor and receiver?
a. Type AB
i. A and B antigens
ii. Receive ALL
iii. Universal recipient – AB+
b. Type A
i. A antigens
ii. Receive A and O
c. Type B
i. B antigens
ii. Receive B and O
d. Type O
i. No antigens
ii. Receive O
iii. Universal donor O
QUIZLET = https://quizlet.com/_879vso?x=1qqt&i=2du7ei
Chapter 17 The Heart
17. Review the anatomy and functions of the structures of the heart. a. right side of the heart –
i. right atrium – receives blood low in O2 from SVA/IVC veins
ii. right ventricle – pumps blood in low in O2 to arteries of the pulmonary circuit
iii. tricuspid valve – prevents blood from flowing back into right atrium iv. pulmonary SL valve – prevents blood from flowing back into right
ventricle
v. pulmonary arteries – sends blood low in O2 to the lungs
b. left side of heart
i. pulmonary veins – send blood high in O2 back to the heart
ii. left atrium – receives blood high in O2 from pulmonary veins
iii. left ventricle – pumps blood high in O2 to systemic circuit arteries
iv. bicuspid/mitral valve – prevents blood from flowing back into left atrium v. aortic SL valve – prevents blood from flowing back into left ventricle
18. What is the purpose of the coronary circulation?
a. Circulation of blood in the BVs that supply the myocardium – heart muscle
19. What venous structure empties blood into the right atrium?
a. Coronary veins – drain into coronary sinus from heart tissues – into right atrium
20. Review the steps involved in an action potential for a pacemaker cell versus a contractile cardiac muscle cell.
a. Action potential for a pacemaker cell – autorhythmic/initiates AP
i. Slow depolarization due to opening of Na+ channels and closing of K+ channels
ii.
b. Contractile cardiac muscle cell – plateau phase
i. Depolarization is due to NA+ influx thru fast voltagegated Na+ channels ii. Positive feedback cycle rapidly opens many Na+ channels, reversing membrane potential
iii. Channel inactivated ends this phase
iv.
21. What is the purpose of the plateau phase in the action potential of the contractile cell? a. portion of the cardiac action potential during which Ca ions enter the cardiac muscle cell slows as K ions exit the cell
b. lengthens/strengthens the resulting contraction of the cell
c. prevent tetany of cardiac contractile cells
22. Review the anatomy and functions of the pacemaker cells of the heart. Which are the pacemakers of the entire heart? Review the cardiac conduction system pathway. a. Components: Sinoatrial node (SA pacemaker of the heart) – Atrial conducting fibers – Atrioventricular Node (AV) – AV Bundle – R/L Bundle Branches – Purkinje fibers
b. Conduction System Pathway
i. 1 – SA Node generates AP, spreads to atrial cells and AV node
ii. 2 – AV node delay, pauses impulse
iii. 3 – AP is conducted to AV bundle (release of his) then to r/l bundle
branches
iv. 4 – AP spreads from bundle branches along Purkinje fibers to contractile cells of ventricles – depolarize ventricles
23. Review the components of the formula you used to calculate the heart rate in beats/min. a. __mm (small square – R to R wave) x 25 mm/sec x 60 sec/min
24. Review our discussion of cardiac dysrhythmia. Understand the following: a. Normal sinus rhythm
i. Normal electrical rhythm of the heart – by sinoatrial node
b. Bradycardia
i. Heart rate is less than 60 bpm
c. Tachycardia
i. Heart rate more than 100 bpm
d. Atrial fibrillation
i. Rapid, uncoordinated contractions of atrium
e. Ventricular fibrillation
i. Rapid, uncoordinated chaotic contractions of ventricle
f. Basic Heart Block—don’t worry about defining 1st, 2nd, 3rd degree types. i. prolonged PR interval
25. Review the Cardiac Cycle. Be able to recognize:
a. Events of the cardiac cycle of the four phases.
b. Changes in valve events and when they occur.
c. Changes in pressure: atrium, ventricle, aorta, and when they occur. d. Changes in volume: ventricular and when it occurs.
i. 1 – Ventricular filling phase
1. SA node fires an AP, propagated thru the atria and delayed at AV
node
a. Ventricular filling; Atrial contraction
2. 1st Valves:
a. Ventricles – relaxed – diastole
b. Atria – relaxed – atrial diastole
c. AV – opened
d. SL – closed
3. 2nd Valves:
a. All stay the same BUT Atria – contracted – atrial systole
4. Pressure
a. Aortic pressure decreases slightly as blood enters systemic
circuit
b. Atrial pressure remains slightly higher than ventricular
pressure
5. Volume
a. Ventricular volume rises rapidly as blood drains in from the
atria
ii. 2 – isovolumetric contraction phase
1. Depolarization spreads thru the AV node to the ventricles, leading R and S waves
2. 1st Valves:
a. Ventricles – contracted – systole
b. Atria – relaxed – atrial diastole
c. AV valves – closed
d. SL – closed
3. 2nd Valves:
a. SL Valves change – opened
4. Pressure
a. Ventricular pressure rises rapidly until it equals aortic
pressure
b. Ventricular pressure rises above atrial pressure, mitral
valve closes
5. Volume
a. Ventricular volume remains constant
iii. 3 – ventricular ejection phase
1. Depolarization spreads thru ventricles, enters plateau phase then begins repolarization, leading T wave
2. Valves:
a. Ventricles – relaxed – diastole
b. Atria – relaxed – atrial diastole
c. AV – closed
d. SL – closed
3. Pressure
a. Ventricular pressure rises above aortic pressure and aortic valve opens
b. Atrial pressure rises as the atria fill with blood
4. Volume
a. Ventricular volume rapidly declines as blood is ejected
iv. 4 – isovolumetric relaxation phase
1. Ventricular repolarization completes, and the SA nodal cells begin slow depolarization
2. Valves: like first phase
3. Pressure
a. Ventricular pressure rises rapidly until it equals aortic
pressure
b. Ventricular pressure rises above atrial pressure, causing the
mitral valve to close
4. Volume
a. Ventricular volume remains constant
e.
26. Review the differences in pressure of the pulmonary and systemic circulations. a. Pulmonary Circuit –
i. Low pressure circuit
ii. Delivers blood only to lungs – forces resisting blood flow are low
b. Systemic Circuit –
i. High pressure circuit
ii. Delivers blood to body tissues (rest of body) – forces resisting blood flow are much higher
27. Review the ECG and know the electrical events in that occur in the tracing. Know the mechanical events that follow on Wiggers diagram.
a. WAVE – ELECTRICAL – MECHANICAL
b. P wave – atrial depolarization – atrial systole (contraction)
c. QRS complex – ventricular depolarization – ventricular systole (contraction): atrial diastole (relaxation
d. T wave – ventricular repolarization – ventricular diastole (relaxation) 28. Label the waves, segments, and intervals of the ECG.
a.
b. RR – duration of cardiac AP
c. PR – atrial depolarization; AV node delay
d. QT – duration of ventricular AP
e. ST – Ventricular plateau phase
29. Be able to calculate the stroke volume (SV).
a. Stroke volume = end diastolic volume end systolic volume
30. Be familiar with the volumes that correlate with SV, CO, EDV, and ESV. Be able to define.
a. EDV = 120 ml
i. The volume of blood present in ventricles at the end of ventricular filing b. ESV = 50 ml
i. The volume of blood present in ventricles at end of ventricular ejection phase
c. SV = 70 ml
d. Cardiac Output (CO) – volume of blood pumped into the pulmonary/systemic circuits in 1 minute
e. Heart rate x stroke volume = cardiac output
31. Review our discussion of preload and afterload. Understand and define.
a. Preload – length/degree of stretch of the sarcomeres in the ventricular cells of the heart before they contract
i. Determined by EDV – length of time in diastole; venous return
b. Afterload – force that the r/l ventricle must overcome in order to eject blood into their respective arteries
i. Determined by blood pressure in arteries
1. Inc afterload = ventricular must be greater to exceed arterial pres.
2. Inc afterload = dec SV = inc ESV. (vice versa)
32. What is the FrankStarling law?
a. Mechanism by which a ventricular muscle cell of the heart contracts more forcefully when it is stretched
b. More stretch of cardiac muscle cells – more forcefully they will contract – higher SV
i. Cross bridges being formed when stretched
ii. Calcium ions to enter cytosol of muscle cell
QUIZLET – https://quizlet.com/495994113/biol125exam2cardiovascularsystemflash cards/?new
Chapter 18 The Blood Vessels
33. How would you define blood pressure?
a. the hydrostatic pressure exerted on a BV wall by the blood
34. Review the relationship between peripheral resistance and blood pressure. a. When resistance is encountered away from the heart, in the body’s periphery, bc of hindered blood flow thru the vasculature
35. What are factors that determine peripheral resistance?
a. Vessel radius
b. Blood viscosity
c. Blood vessel length
d. Obstructions in vessel
36. How would you calculate the mean arterial pressure (MAP)?
a. MAP = Diastolic pressure + pulse pressure/3
i. Pulse Pressure = systolic pressure – diastolic pressure
ii.
37. Review and understand the process of obtaining the blood pressure from the arm. a.
38. Where is blood pressure the highest? The lowest?
a.
39. What mechanism in the body is utilized to move venous blood?
a. 1 – skeletal muscle pump
b. 2 – respiratory muscle pump
c. 3 – venous valves
d. 4 – smooth muscle in wall of veins via SNS control – vasoconstriction – inc rate of return of venous blood
40. How would you define hypertension?
a. high blood pressure; systolic pressure of 140 mm Hg or higher OR/AND diastolic pressure of 90 mm Hg or higher
41. Review Module 18.5 in your textbook on Capillary Pressures and Water Movement. Understand the concepts discussed in class and their applications.
a. b.
c.
d.
42. Understand and define: hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure and how they work together.
a. Hydrostatic pressure – pressure that a fluid exerts on the wall of its container b. Osmotic pressure – force that would need to be applied to a solution to stop water from moving into it by osmosis
43. Understand and define: filtration, and absorption.
a. Filtration – movement of a fluid by force such as hydrostatic pressure or gravity b. Absorption – transport of a substance across an epithelial lining into the bloodstream
44. Be able to calculate the Net Filtration Pressure (NFP).
a. Net Filtration Pressure – difference between opposing forces of the hydrostatic pressure gradient and colloid osmotic pressure
b.
The lymphatic will not be on this exam. It will be included with the immune system for Exam #3, since both systems are covered in Chapter 20.