History Exam II Study Guide  Notes from class:  

how many centuries did roman empire endured?

The Fall of the Roman Empire  

Roman Empire, c. 100 BC

∙ Endured for 4 centuries  

Crisis in the Roman Empire  

∙ Moral crisis  

o Cato the Elder 234-149 BC  

∙ Social crisis  

o Optimates and equites  

∙ Political crisis  

o Tiberius (c. 163-133 BC) and Gaius (153-121 BC) Gracchus  (the Gracchi)  

o Marius and army reform 107 BC  

 Wanted the poor to become long-term professional  soldiers  

 Flaws in the plan:  

∙ No longer felt collective sacrifice  

∙ Became dependent on grants and state  

∙ Generals were supporting their troops because

the Senate couldn’t; lead to the generals  

having a ton of support and power  

Civil war in the Roman Republic  

∙ Civil Wars  

o Rapid territorial expansion because army is powerful and  generals were becoming very ambitious  

who stay in Italy and start running the homeland/goverment?

 The personal goals of the generals would push this  expansion  

o Marius, 157-86 BC  If you want to learn more check out according to graeber, the usual explanation - the standard line - for why technological advances did not deliver the promised utopia of the 15-hour work week is that keynes did not factor in:
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 Elected himself multiple times  

 Uses army to extort payment from Senate  

o Lucius Cornelius Sulla, 138-78 BC  

 General, had great success  

 Reformer, appealed to common people  

o Generals would have big parade and celebration once they  returned from victories

 Would had out treasures  

o These civil wars created massive death tolls and mass  execution, extremely violent  

o Sulla defeated Marius, and names himself temporary tyrant  Conservative backlash to restore the Republic  

o Relinquished tyrant  

 His rule calmed everything down but not for long;  actually made things worse  

∙ First Triumvirate

o Pompey, 106-48 BC  

 Successful general in East  

who is the leader of roman empire that becomes very powerful leader for 900 years?

o Marcus Crassus, 115-63 BC

 Defeated Spartacus  

o Julius Cesar, 100-44 BC  

 No military reputation but very crafty and slick  

o Each promised to support each other, 60 BC  

 Negative integration  

 Senate was their common enemy  

o Civil war of 49-45 BC  

 Caesar’s military activities  

∙ As his military reputation grew, he valued  

public opinion  

o Wrote up himself stories about himself to  

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 Pompey stays in Italy  

∙ Starts running the homeland/ government  

 Crassus  

∙ 53 BC, dies in combat  

 Caesar gets restless, invades Italy and gets rid of  Pompey  

∙ Major inter-continental struggle  

∙ Pompey killed around 41 BC  

∙ 45 BC, Caesar is triumphant  

o Ended in Spain  

 After Civil War  

∙ Caesar is nice to enemies, gains popularity  

∙ Attacks social issues  

∙ Added more government jobs  

∙ Established colonies  

∙ Had himself declared dictator for life  

o Caesar assassinated 44 BC  

 Intended to be a public act to protect the Republic

 Cassius Longinus (d. 42BC), Marcus Julius Brutus  (c.85-42 BC), Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC)  ∙ Thought they were saving the republic  ∙ Each person stabbed Caesar once  

∙ Smeared his blood on their hands, no shame  ∙ Cicero wrote the reasoning for the public

Imperial Rome  

Civil War  

∙ Second Triumvirate  

o Mark Antony, ca. 81-30 BC  

 Right hand man of Caesar, controlled the East after  Caesar’s death

o Octavian/Augustus, 63 BC-14 AD  

 Adapted son of Caesar  

 Stayed in Italy  

o Marcus Lepidus, d. 12 BC  

 General, controlled the West  

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Augustus, r. 27 BC-14 AD  

∙ First emperor  

∙ Lots of challenges and opportunities  

∙ Need for gigantic expenditures for army and government  ∙ Roman Empire ready for control  

Augustus and Pax Romana  

∙ Augustus reigned 27 BC- 14 AD  

o 27 BC, gave all of his power back to the Senate as a sign of good faith; it was a sham, he still had a ton of power  

∙ 23 BC, became head of all armies  

∙ 12 BC, pontifex maximus  

o Highest religious position  

o Created the Roman Imperial Cult; after an emperor dies  they become a god

∙ Princeips  

o He was never called an emperor but he was the “First  Citizen”  

∙ He was rich enough to rule without the Senate’s help  ∙ Pax Romana  

o Internal peace, Rome’s survival was never at risk during  this time  

o Virgil (70-19 BC), and Horace (65-8 BC)  

 Poets who believed that Rome was there for peace  ∙ Conservative tendancies  

∙ After death of Augustus, …  

o Conquering and integrations of territories  

o Extreme instability in imperial succession, but the stability  of Rome in general was strong  

o Over time, republic faded away, the definition of the  emperor increased and became clearer  

∙ Flairon and Antonine Emperor, 69-192 AD  

Early Christianity  

∙ Popular religious cults in the Empire  If you want to learn more check out anth 1001

o Isis (Egypt)  

 Something similar to baptism and judgment after  

death

o Mithras (Persia)  

 Moral highs if you were to join  

∙ Israel was conquered in 63 BC

o Jewish lands become a spirirtual mecca  

∙ Jesus Christ, c. 6 BC -30 AD  

o He came to usher in a final judgment  

o His expectations for people were to be charitable and  humble  

∙ Spreading the religion  

o St. Paul and St. Peter  

 Paul travelled around to spread Christianity and built  communities  

 Paul was a Roman citizen and his letter to the  

communities that he set up became apart of the new

testament  

The Spread of Christianity  

∙ Connected with the Roman Empire and the Pax Romana  ∙ Technology and travel; common language  

Conversion of the Empire  

∙ Foreign threats  

∙ Military  

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∙ Sponsored Emperors in exchange for grand promises  ∙ Between 235-284 AD

∙ 20 different emperors, 17 of which were killed either in civil war  or assassinated  

Diocletian, 284-305 AD  

∙ Brutal  

∙ Tetrarchy  

∙ The empire is too big to be governed by one person in one place  ∙ Unclear rules of succession  

o A root of a majority of the problems and fighting  

∙ Tetrarchy  

o The rule of four  

o For administrative purposes, the split of the empire in half,  East and West; would be governed by an Augustus, and a  vice emperor, Caesar  

o The Caesar was the successor and would marry the  daughter of the Augustus  

∙ Revival of Roman religion  

o Clashing with the growing Christian culture  

o Christians refuse to give up there religion although they  were peaceful

∙ Great Persecution, 303-313 AD  

o First systematic persecution ever  

o What Diocletian is known for  

∙ In 305, he voluntarily retires to test the succession rules he put  in place; they do not work and Rome falls into a civil war  

Constantine the Great, r. 306-337 AD

∙ Wins the civil war  

∙ Grew up in Diocletian’s court  

∙ Had a vision that promised him victory under the Cross  ∙ Battle of Milvain Bridge, 312 AD  

o Won the battle even though he was greatly outnumbers,  claimed it was because he put crosses on their shields  ∙ Edict of Milan, 313 AD  

o Ended the persecution of the Christians  

o Gives priests legal equality  

o Massive building for the Church and gives tons of donations ∙ Wants to get all Christians on the same pages  

∙ First to show favor for Christianity  

∙ No a conversion of the empire, just more like an integration  ∙ Foundation of Constantinople, 324 AD  

o Frist city to be defined as a Christian city  

o Become the capital of the Eastern Empire, now is Istanbul.  ∙ Repression of the Pagans started after his death  

Important Figures in the Early Church

∙ St. Ambrose of Milan, 339-397 AD  

o Conflict with Emperor Theodosius I, 347-395 AD  

 He massacred multiple villages

 He was the excommunicated from the church until  he repented  

 First real example of how the powerful the control of  religion is/was  

∙ St. Augustine of Hippo, 354-430 AD  

o Trained by Ambrose  

o Wrote a tone  

o From North Africa  

o Confessiones (Confessions)

 Autobiography of his spiritual conversion  

o De Ciritate Dio (The City of God)

 If we are so focused on the afterlife, then why are  

we here on Earth?  

 2 cities theory  

“Barbarians” and the Dissolution of the Empire in the West  ∙ The barbarians were illiterate  

∙ Cornelius Tacitus, c. 56- c.120 AD

o Germania  

 Book about the barbarians  

 Noble savage writing was created in this book  

∙ They were never integrated properly with the Roman culture  ∙ Small groups living less-advanced lives

∙ St. Jerome, c. 347-420 AD  

o Vulgate  

 Used in Europe for over 1,000 years  

 Translation of the Bible from Greek to Latin  

Early Medieval Europe  

“Barbarians” and the Dissolution of the Empire in the West  ∙ Scared and desperate Romans; power-dynamic has changed  ∙ 410 AD: Visigoths sack Rome  

o Were able to send a small military group to cause havoc o Psychological defeat; first time in hundred o f years an  enemy has been able to attack the heart of the Empire  ∙ 455 AD: Vandals sack Rome  

∙ 484 AD: Ostrogoth’s conquer Italy  

∙ Empire in the East survives; become Byzantine Empire  

Germanic Kingdoms  

∙ Germanic Kingdoms in the former Roman Empire

o Built on the cultural ruins of the Roman Empire  

o Ostrogoths – ruled over Italy  

o Visigoths- ruled over Spain and France  

o Vandals – ruled over North Africa  

o Franks – ruled over Western Germany and France  

∙ Romans did see defeat: held onto the whole of the empire;  Western Roman Empire was just being temporarily occupied  

Kingdoms of Europe, c. 526  

∙ Rise in conversion of Christianity, Arians  

o Denies the Holy Trinity  

o Spreads through the Germanic people  

∙ Anglos and Saxons  

∙ Danes and Juts  

o Both did not have any contact with Romans; led to stark  cultural differences  

Beowulf  

∙ C. 425-500 AD, Saxons migrate to England  

∙ C. 520 AD, The ‘historical’ events of Beowulf occur  o Hygelac’s raid recorded by Gregory of Towes  

∙ C. 560-616 AD, Anglo-Saxons convert to Christianity  ∙ C. 789 AD, Viking attacks on Britain  

∙ C. 750-900, Beowulf written down  

∙ C. 1000-1010 oldest surviving Beowulf manuscript  ∙ Fictional dramatization  

Monasticism and the Spread of Christianity  

∙ Anthony of Egypt, c. 250-335  

o Individual goes off into the desert to become more spiritual and powerful and pure  

∙ 2 different forms:  

o Communal: gives away possessions to live in a certain  community, monks  

 Led by abbot

 Lived of charity  

 Lived according to a very strict set of rules  

∙ St. Baul the Great, c. 329-379

o Very influential  

o Established a monetary in Pontus, in present-day Turkey  o Less extreme; focused on communal prayer and helping  the poor and the old  

o In the East  

∙ St. Benedict of Nursia, c. 480-547

o Came from a wealthy Roman Family  

o When in his late teens, he became religious  

o He established Monte Cassino  

 Not far from Rome  

o Created 530 rules that were written down  

The Franks  

Salian and Merovingian Franks  

∙ Salian Franks  

o Northwestern corner of Europe  

o Been around Romans for a long time; learned from them  o Clovis over throws the Roman rule to create:  

∙ Merovingian Franks  

o Merovech  

 Was a famous warrior that the kingdom was named  after  

o Clovis created this kingdom, r. 486-511

 Converts to Christianity in 496, to ease the  

combination of the cultures  

∙ Catholic  

∙ Recognized as a leader by religious power  

∙ Christianity worked like glue  

o Territorial expansion during this time  

o Lasted for 2 centuries

o New model of aristocrat  

 Be a warrior and a land owner  

o “Mayor of the Palace”  

 Being a king become more a symbolic figure; this  

position is like a Prime Minister, as all the real power  

Carolingian Franks  

∙ Charles Martel, c. 688-741  

o Great warrior  

∙ Pepin (Pippen) the Short, 714-768  

o Wanted to make himself king because he had all the  power anyways  

o How? Cut a deal with the Pope  

 Rome under threat from the Lombard’s to the North  and the Byzantines to the South  

 Pope got military protection; Pepin gets confirmation for his actions from a trusted source  

o “Patrician of the Romans”

 Pope basically says that Pepin is a Roman  

∙ Charlemagne, r. 768-814  

o Most famous  

o Huge expansion during his rule  

o By his death, no Germanic people who hasn’t converted to Christianity  

o 800 AD, Christmas Day: Pope crowns him Emperor   Stakes a claim that he is a Roman  

o Carolingian Renaissance during his reign  

 Growth of culture and learning  

 Claim to the Roman Empire  

o Not literate  

o Relied on churchmen to fill political gaps in his  

government  

 They were educated and trusted  

Frankish Succession  

∙ Combination of land owning and warrior skills to be considered  an aristocrat  

∙ Conversion to Christianity  

∙ Renaissance  

∙ Support from the Church  

∙ Charlemagne considered to be one of the “Fathers of Europe”;  founder of western culture  

o Exaggeration  

Medieval Society and the Medieval Church

The Carolingian Empire  

∙ Charlemagne, r. 768-814

o Dukes came about during this time; military leaders during  this time  

o Local sense of self grows and becomes stronger  

∙ Local elite had great military, legal and agricultural strength in  their community but connected to a higher power  

∙ Louis the Pious, r. 814-840  

o Very religious

o 3 sons  

o Last time Western Europe was under one ruler  

∙ Treaty of Verdun, 843 CE  

o East Frankish Kingdom (Louis The German)  

o West Frankish Kingdom (Charles the Bald)  

o Lotharingia Kingdom, Lothar  

∙ Treaty of Mersen, 870

o Lotharingia cut in half after the brother’s death  

The Frankish Empire Divided  

∙ Holy Roman Empire  

o Otto the Great, r. 936-973  

 Great military leader  

 Crowned Emperor by Pope John XII in 962 CE  

 Leader of unified Christian West  

 Ottomans  

o Leader of this empire becomes very powerful leader for  900 years  

o Emperor is elective position  

∙ Kingdom of France  

o Hugh Capet, r. 987-996 CE  

o Capetians  

o Paris comes into power during this time  

Medieval Society  

∙ Liege lords and vassals  

o Many vassals would pledge allegiance to a lord in order to  get a piece of land  

o Complicated network  

o Hierarchical

∙ Georges Darby – the “three orders”  

o Those who work, peasants  

 Needed the lord’s permission to do anything  

o Those you fight, nobles  

 Protected the people, assist them

o Those who pray, clergy  

∙ Family lineage becomes very important  

o Younger sons are driven to find their fortune elsewhere;  many join the clergy

∙ The Church  

o Took a 10% tax  

o The Bishops were the religious leader during the early  Christian years  

o Large scales economic force  

o The Church created huge hierarchy  

 Cathedral – “Church of a Bishop”  

The Rise of the Papacy  

∙ Who is the Pope?  

o Technically, the Pope is the Bishop of Rome  

∙ The Bishops of Rome wanted to set themselves apart from others ∙ Justification for Papal supremacy over the Church  

o There is a Doctrine says these certain bishops are  

decedents of the apostles  

o St. Peter  

o Matthew 16:18-19 “Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will  build my Church…”  

 Peter is the gatekeeper and is to develop the Church  from Christ in Rome  

o John 21:17 “Feed my sheep”  

 Christ tells Peter to look after all of the Flock  

 Doctrine of Patrine Supremacy  

o The city of Rome was unique  

 People looked to Rome for unified leadership  

o When the Roman Empire started to fall, the Pope and the  Church stay strong  

∙ Pope Leo I 490-461  

o Convinced Attila Hun to leave Rome instead of committing  violence  

∙ Pope Gregory the Great, 590-604  

∙ The formation of the Papal States  

o Donation of Pepin, 756  

 Lands granted by Pepin  

 Is now decreased down to just the Vatican City

∙ College of Cardinals, 1059

o Electing the pope  

o Clergymen got tired of people getting in their affairs  o Cardinals are from all over the world

The Investiture Controversy

∙ Emperor Heinrich III, R. 1039-1056  

o Personally removed 3 Popes because he didn’t like them  ∙ Emperor Heinrich IV, r. 1056-1106  

∙ Gregorian reform movement  

o Clunian monastery, (Cluny 909)

 Benedictine  

 Becomes the center of reform  

 Simony  

∙ Very disliked  

∙ When you buy your church office  

 Lay investiture  

∙ Coronation  

∙ Symbols that represent their power  

∙ The people who helped in ceremony unless the

are ordained

o Pope Gregory (Hildebrand), 1073-1085  

 Voting in as Pope even though he was a reformer  

 Combative military name  

The Investiture Controversy  

∙ Cont.  

∙ Pope Gregory IVV

o Dictatus Papae 1075  

 The Catholic Church can’t be wrong  

 He is going to be the strong pope for the Church  

against the outsiders  

o Wanted to raise the moral standards  

 Ex. Celibacy  

o Keep outsiders/political leaders away  

o Caused issues with rules  

∙ Showdown between Emperor Heinrich IV (r. 1056-1106) and Pope Gregory IVV and his successors  

o Included physical fighting  

o Lasted for decades  

Papal claims to supremacy in the world  

∙ Matthew 16:18-19  

o Spiritual guidance and following is more important than  military  

o Even the emperors need to go through the Church for  salvation

∙ Two Swords Doctrine  

o Luke 22:38  

o The Pope has the right to use force  

o Two very different summaries from passage  

∙ Donation of Constantine  

o Was a fraud; supposedly written by Constantine when he  was creating Constantinople and gave power to the Bishop  of Rome  

o Proven to be a forgery by Lorenzo Valla, c. 1407-1457  ∙ Concordat of Worms, 1122  

o Representation of each other’s power was respected  o Win for the Church  

Rise of Papal Monarchy  

∙ High-point of papal power  

∙ Pope Innocent III, 1198-1216  

o Routinely played a role in politics  

∙ Fourth Lateran Council, 1215

o Image of absolute control  

o Internal power  

 The Pope is absolute power and leader of the entirety of the Church  

o External power  

 Who deserve what politically  

Kingdom Of England  

∙ Anglo-Saxon heptarchy  

∙ Vikings invasions  

o Establishing their own kingdoms  

∙ King Alfred of Wessex, 870-899  

o Expand territory, and survived the Vikings invasions  ∙ Norman Conquest, 1066  

o Vikings who integrated with French culture  

o King William I, “the Conqueror”, 1066-1087  

 Had familial ties to the throne  

o Battle of Hastings was the deciding factor in King William  success to the throne  

Kingdom Of France  

∙ Capetian Dynasty, 987-1328

o Ile De France, around Paris  

o Produced without interruption a steady line of male hiers

∙ King Philip II (Augustus), 1180-1223  

o very important  

o Normandy no longer apart of the English rule  

o Grew territory  

∙ King (St.) Louis IX, 1228-1270

o Charitable  

o Crusades  

o Permanent law court in Paris for appeals  

Medieval Monarchies: The Crusades  

Clash between Papal and Secular Monarchies  

∙ England  

o Fight over who would be the Arch-Bishop of Canterbury  o King John, rule 1199-1207

o Papal Interdict 1207

 Suspense of all sacraments preformed in an area   Huge deal for local society because they were life  and death matters  

 English people rise up and demand a change  

o Magna Carta 1215  

 One of founding documents creating democracy  

 The law is stronger that the monarchy  

 List of promises to the people  

∙ Holy Roman Empire  

o Emperor Friedrich II, rule 1211/1212-1250  

 After his death, his empire never really recovers  

because of the damage done by clashes with the  

Pope

∙ France  

o King Philip IV (1285-1314) vs. Pope Boniface VIII (1294- 1303)

 Pope says that people don’t have to pay taxes  

because they are really under his pyramid, not the  

kings  

 Pope dies of the wound received from the beating  ordered by the king  

The Fall of Papal Monarchy  

∙ The “Babylonian Captivity” 1305-1378  

o Avignon

 Papacy moved to Avignon because the King  

convinced the new French Pope that Rome was  

dangerous  

 Already Church property  

 Very scandalous  

o St. Catherine of Siena 1347-1386  

 Protested the move and agued for the Papacy to  

move back to Rome  

o Pope John XXII (1316-1334)

∙ Great Schism, 1378-1417  

o Two different Popes argued over who was the “real Pope”  o One moved back to Avignon, one stayed in Rome

o Excommunicated each other  

o 3rd Pope elected in Piza, 1409

o Council of Constance 1414-1418  

 Dismisses the 3 other Popes, elects a new Pope and  moves back to Rome

The Crusades  

∙ Crusades: Military campaigns against the enemies of the Church  ∙ Pope Urban II, 1088-1099  

o Council of Clermont 1095  

 Urges people to put down their arms against each  other, and fight to protect Jerusalem  

o First Crusades 1096-1099  

 Re-conquered Jerusalem  

 Crusade Kingdom

∙ Third (King’s Crusade, 1189-1192  

o King of England, King of France, Holy Roman Kingdom all  personally involved  

∙ Non-Middle Eastern Crusades  

o Albigensian (Cather) Crusade  

o Baltic/Northern Crusade  

∙ Reasons to go on crusade  

o Religious devotion, spiritual benefit  

o Social status  

o Money  

o Adventure  

∙ Opening up the West to global perspective

Review of Readings from Discussions:  

∙ St. Paul, “Epistle to the Romans” (Sources of the West, 104-107)  o Basic explanation on why the Romans should believe in  Christianity  

 God can be harsh is you don’t believe, he will give  you bad personality traits if you don’t  

 If you believe, your spirit will live forever  

o The Law of Christianity is more peaceful that the real law o The Spirit tell you what to do

o God’s will can predestine a person

o Brief explanation on how you should act  

 Be compassionate  

 Leave the hatred and revenge to God

 Follow commandments  

∙ St. Augustine, “The City of God” (Sources of the West, 119-123)  o States the theory that people are citizens of two cities and  that we are moving through the human city to get to the  city of God  

∙ Pliny, “a Consultation Concerning the Christians” (electronic  reserve)  

o Letter from Pliny to Emperor Trajan discussing the  punishment and treatment of Christians  

 Used torture as last resort, would much rather see  them convert to worship the “rightful gods”

o Pliny claims not to be an expert in these proceeding  o Trajan encourages Pliny, and gives more advice on how to  handle Christians, not too harshly

∙ Tactitus, “Germania” (Sources of the West, 111-114)  o Tactitus discusses the German cultre  

 How leaders are chosen: Kings by birth, generals by  valor

 Kings don’t have absolute power  

o Woman are almost valued  

 They dress the same as men

 Matrimonial bond is strict

 Adultery extremely shameful

o Omens are a huge part of their culture  

o A man must be armed/knighted in order be involved with  society

∙ Priscus, “History” (electronic reserve)  

o Attila of the Huns receives a description of the Roman  culture

∙ Thomas Aquinas, “summa Theologica” (Sources o the West, 195- 199)  

o War has to meet certain criteria in order to be justified  o Can it be demonstrated that God exists?  

 Would knowledge replace the faith that is expected?  o Internal debate with himself  

o Balance religious commitments with real life situations  ∙ Fulcher of Chartres, “The Fist Crusade and the Siege of  Jerusalem” (Sources of the West. 176-182)  

o Went to the crusade for an eternal-life reward  

o Ultimate goal is peace but need to fight in order to attain it o Martyrdom

o Pope is criticizing other Church leaders  

o Victims of the siege are being dehumanized  

Review Questions 

∙ Reasons for Crusades  

o Stop fighting each other and do something productive  o Eternal rewards  

∙ Pope vs. Emperor  

o Emperor is also divinely appointed  

o Armies are more closely tied to the monarchies  

∙ Fall of Romans  

o West  

 Lacks political leadership and stability for a long time  Charlemagne links together some power but not as  much as before; creates Holy Roman Empire  

 Neither Holy nor Roman nor an empire  

o East  

 Becomes Byzantine Empire  

Format  

∙ Same as before  

∙ Some choices for big essay

o Relationship between religious and political leaders  o Development of Catholic Church and the Papal monarchy  o Influence this essay with earlier material from last test