Description
Study Guide Final Exam
∙ Exam Date: Dec 14th
∙ Covers Ch 1 20 in textbook and lectures from the entire class
∙ This study guide will cover the most important parts of the chapters in the text and lectures from the class
∙ You are allowed one 3x5 index card on this exam, so if there's anything in this study guide that you feel confused about, include it in your index card!
Ch 1 (Lecture 2 and part of 3)
∙ Economics social science that studies choices that people or businesses make as they cope with scarcity and the factors that influence these decisions
Scarcity inability to satisfy all wants
Incentive reward/penalty that encourages/discourages an action
∙ Difference between macro and micro (in this course, we study micro) Microeconomics the study of individual firms, consumers and markets within the economy
Macroeconomics the study of the overall/aggregate economy
∙ The three big questions
What goods and services will be produced?
o Goods: physical objects
o Services: tasks performed for consumers
How will the g and s be produced?
o Factors of production (land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship)
For whom will they be produced?
o Landrent
o Labor wages (earns most)
o Capital interest
o Entrepreneurship profit
∙ Economic structure Don't forget about the age old question of What is the impact of bell v wolfish case in 1979?
Tradition the answer this year is the same as last year (follows a pattern) Command Economic planners devise answers and create plans (ex: North Korea) Consider: Selfinterest vs. social/public interest
o Selfinterest best decision for yourself
o Social Interest best decision for everyone
Economists favor efficient resource use no one can be better off
without someone else being worse off
∙ There are five things that Rush does not talk about in his lectures from this chapter, but he includes about 510% of his questions from the book, so it might be helpful to know. Issues in today's world regarding social vs.self interest
o Globalization (expansion of trade and investments)
o InformationAge Monopolies (Information Revolution)We also discuss several other topics like What is peche merle?
o Climate Change (Burning fossil fuels for use)
o Financial Instability (unpaid loans)
∙ Economic way of thinking
Tradeoffs giving up one thing to get something else
Rational choices comparing benefits (gains) and costs (give up)
o Benefit determined by preferences (what a person likes/dislikes)
o Opportunity cost highest valued alternative given up
Ex: Sally loves both tacos and pizza. Both cost $4. Sally would
rather get a taco than a pizza slice. When she gets a taco, her opp.
cost is the pizza slice.
Choices made at the margin compare benefit of more of something with its cost o Marginal Benefit benefit received from one more unit consumed
Measured as max amount willing to pay for one more unit We also discuss several other topics like Republicanism refers to what?
o Marginal Cost opp cost of producing one more unit
Measured as increase in total cost/increase in output
Respond to incentives (see first bullet)
∙ Positive v. Normative Statements
Positive: what is
Negative: what should be
Economic model explains economic world descriptions of some aspects that include only features needed for purpose at hand
Ch 2 (Lectures 37)
∙ Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) boundary between combinations of g + s that are produced at lowest possible cost
Good A
Not
Attainable and production
Attainable but not
efficient
Good B
There is no opp cost from going to production inefficient to pro. eff. Choice along PPF (as you move along line) is a tradeoff
Point may be located inside because resources are not being used efficiently Law of increasing opportunity cost bowed outward because resources are not equally productive at each point If you want to learn more check out What types of social media data can be analyzed?
o Opp cost= lose/gain
o Allocative Efficiency g+s produced at lowest cost with greatest benefit (in other words, you can't produce more of one without giving up other) PPF shows limits to production
o Resources (labor, capital, land and entrepreneurship)
If resources increase/decrease, PPF bows outward/inward
o Technology
Marginal cost is slope of the PPF If you want to learn more check out What is america's first constitution?
Marginal Benefit Curve shows marginal benefit and quantity consumed (unrelated to PPF curve
o Similar to demand curve
o principle of decreasing marginal benefit (more of good, less marginal benefit)
Ex: 1st slice of pizza has more benefit to you than the 10th slice of
pizza, when you're not as hungry
∙ Economic growth expands PPF outward If you want to learn more check out What is the nature of language acquisition?
Ex: Hong Kong catching up to US
Good A
Good B
Technological change development of new goods or ways to produce Capital accumulation growth of capital resources (including human capital) ∙ Need to know terms (economic coordination)
Firm economic unit that hires factors of production to sell g+s
Market arrangement that allows buyers and seller to get info and do business o Competitive no buyer or seller influences
Property rights social arrangement that governs ownership and use of valued property (real, financial and intellectual)
Money commodity or token accepted as payment
∙ Trade Gains (Rush doesn't mention this until Lecture 20, but its included in Ch 2, so I'll mention it here)
Comparative Advantage country/person can perform activity at lower cost than others (ex: Suppose US outperforms China in rice and shirt production, but is better at producing shirts than rice, so China produces the rice)
Absolute Advantage country/person is more productive than others in all activities (ex: Suppose US outperforms China in rice and shirt production)
Ch 3 (Lectures 8 ) *This chapter is most crucial of all, I recommend you research it more in depth in addition to the study guide!
∙ Markets and Prices
Competitive Market See markets in Ch 2
Money price dollars exchanged for good or service
Relative price ratio of one price to another (opportunity cost)
∙ Demand
Law of Demandhigher the price of a good, the smaller the quantity demanded and lower the price, higher the quantity demanded (P QD and vice versa) Demand entire relationship between price of good and QD
o want, afford and plan to buy
Quantity demanded amount of a good or service that consumers plan to buy during a given time period at a particular price (point on demand curve) o Change in QD (caused by change in price) indicates a movement along the demand curve
Demand Curve relationship between QD and its price (other influences constant) Price
Quantity Demanded
Change in Demand
o Indicates a shift of the demand curve
o *The way I remember change in QD or change in demand is that
movement is two syllables move and ment, just like quantity demanded is two words. Shift is one syllable, like how demand is only one word. (This can also apply for supply). Hope this helps :)
o Caused by 6 factors
Price of related goods
Complement good used with another good
Substitute good that can replace another good
Expected future prices
Income
Normal gooddemand increases as income increases
Inferior good demand decreases as income increases
Credit market conditions
Preferences
# of demanders
∙ Supply
Law of Supply The higher the price of a good, the greater the quantity supplied of it, and the lower the price, the lower the QS
Price
Quantity
Supplied
Supply entire relationship between price of good and QS
Supply Curve relationship between QS and price (other influences constant) o See curve above
Quantity supplied amount of good or service that producers plan to sell during a given time period at a particular price
o Change in QS (caused by change in price) indicates movement along the supply curve
Change in Supply
o Indicates a shift of the supply curve
o Caused by 6 factors
Cost (of factors of production)
Technology
# of suppliers
Price of related goods
Subs in production uses same materials (ex: leather wallets
and leather belts)
Comps in production produced together (beef and
cowhide)
State of Nature (natural occurrences that affect resources)
Expected future prices (opposite demand pattern)
∙ Market Equilibrium
Equilibrium price price where QD = QS
Equilibrium quantity quantity bought and sold at equilibrium price P S
EP
D
EQ Q
If QD > QS, then price is too low and there is a shortage, and the price goes up If QS > QD, then price is too high and there is a surplus and the price goes down ∙ Shifting the Demand OR Supply Curve
P and Q rise = demand curve shifts right
P rises and Q falls = supply curve shifts left
P falls and Q rises = supply curve shifts right
P and Q fall = demand curve shifts left
∙ Shifting both Demand and Supply
D shift> than S shift = P and Q rise
D shift< than S shift = P falls and Q rises
∙ Rush's 4step method for shifts of supply OR demand curves
1. Draw demand and supply diagram
2. Which curve shifts?
3. Determine direction of shift
4. Draw a new line
Ch 4 (Lectures 1214)
∙ Price Elasticity of Demand responsiveness of the QD of a good to a change in the price % change QD/ % change P
o You can calculate the % change in P or QD with the formula:
(% change in P) / (average price x 100)
o Ex: Original price of pizza was $20.50 and the new price is $19.50. The price change is $1 and the average price ((19.5 + 20.5)/2) is $20, so 1/20 is 5%.
o Use the Slope Formula (rise/run) to find change in P/change in QD
Still confused? Try combining the two formulas into the
commonly used MidPoint Formula:
change in QD / average QD
change in P / average P
*The elasticity is the magnitude of response we know if it's
negative or positive based on Law of Demand, so it's always
expressed as a positive
Types of Elasticity
o "Perfectly Elastic"demand with an infinity price elasticity (vertical
demand curve)
o Elastic E>1 (almost vertical)
o "Perfectly Inelastic" demand with zero price elasticity (horizontal demand curve)
o Inelastic 0<E<1 (almost horizontal)
o Unit Elastic E = 1 (% change in P = % change in QD)
∙ Factors that Influence Elasticity
# of substitutes
Proportion of income spent
Time elapsed since price change (Rush doesn't include this, but it's in the book) ∙ *Elasticity changes as you go down a downward slope
Total Revenue Test method of estimating price elasticity of demand by observing change in total revenue results from a change in price
o Total Revenue value of firm's sales
P of good X QD
E>1 E=infinit
y
E=
1
E< 1
E=
∙ Other types of Elasticities of Demand
Cross E. of D. responsiveness of demand for a good of a sub or comp o (% change in QD) / (% change in price of sub(+)/comp())
Helpful Hint: Substitute= Positive, Complement= Negative
Income E. of D. responsiveness of demand to change in income
o (% change in QD) / (% change in income)
IED>0 = normal good
IED<0 = inferior good
∙ Price Elasticity of Supply responsiveness of QS of a good to change in price (% change in QD) / (% change in income)
Similar to P.E. of Demand with graphs and elasticity
Two factors affect magnitude of elasticity (Rush doesn't mention these, but they're in the book, so I suggest studying them a bit)
o Resource substitution possibilities
productive resources available, then E will be greater
o Time frame for the supply decision
Momentary supply (response of sellers to a price change at the very
moment it changes)
Shortrun supply (response after some adjustments, such as
technology, are made)
Longrun supply (response made after all adjustments are made)
Ch 5 (Lecture 15, 16 and part of 17)
∙ Allocation of resources (Rush doesn't mention this in his lectures, so I'll be brief, but it's good to know, just in case)
Market Price
Command system someone of authority allocates
Majority rule
Contest
Firstcome, firstserved
Lottery
Personal Characteristics (Ex: Marriage) (In the workplace, this is not allowed) Force (Ex: military, war)
∙ Demand and Marginal Benefit
Marginal Analysis compares marginal benefit to marginal cost
o MB>MC, do action
o MB<MC, don't do action
o Ex: The director has eaten 4 slices of pizza at $4 a slice. All his slices combined are his total benefit, but the benefit he gets from eating a fifth
slice is his marginal benefit (max price willing to pay for next slice)
o Marginal Benefit = marginal social benefit (demand curve)
Benefit to consumer from one more unit of good
When Q rises, MSB falls
When Q falls, MSB rises
o Marginal cost = marginal social cost (supply curve)
opp. cost of producing one more unit (producer)
When Q rises, MSC rises
When Q falls, MSC falls
∙ Allocative Efficiency one point on PPF where it is not possible to produce more of one good without producing less of another valued more (see ch 2)
MSB = MSC
Total Surplus
EP Allocatively Efficient Quantity (same as Equlibrium)
EQ
Consumer Surplus
EP All. Eff. (Equ.)
Producer Surplus
Total Surplus sum of consumer and producer surplus (measures efficiency)
EQ
Consumer Surplus (marginal benefit price paid) / quantity bought
Producer Surplus (price marginal cost) / quantity sold
o Finding areas of surpluses = area of triangle (1/2BH)
∙ Market Failure market delivers inefficient outcome
Underproduction = Deadweight Loss measure of inefficiency, decrease in total surplus due to inefficient production
Overproduction = deadweight loss from surplus
Under (DWL)
Over (DWL)
Sources of market failure (Again, Rush doesn't include this, this is from the book) o P and Q Regulations
o Taxes and subsidies
o Externalities
o Public goods and common recources
o Monopoly
o High transaction costs opp. costs of trades in market
∙ Fairness of Market and Theories
Adam Smith "Suppliers and demanders pursue selfinterest and social interest at the same time." (Invisible Hand)
Rules of fairness (book, not Rush)
o Not fair if the result isn't fair
Utilitarianism principle that states that we should strive to achieve
"the greatest happiness for the greatest # of people"
Big tradeoff tradeoff between efficiency and fairness
Make poor welloff (John Rawls A Theory of Justice)
o Not fair is rules aren't fair
Symmetry principle people in similar situations treated similar
Fairness rules (Robert Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia)
1. State enforces laws that establish and protect private property
2. Private property transferred voluntarily
Ch 6 (Lectures 1720)
∙ Price Ceiling/ Price Cap government sets max legal price that can be charged (ex: rent) Rent ceiling price ceiling for rent
o Effects
Black Market markets in which otherwise legal goods are traded
at an illegal price (ex: key money)
Search activity time spent looking for someone to buy or sell a
good
Housing shortage (QD>QS)
Only sellers and buyer with little search gain, society loses
Shortage S Unemployment
Equilibrium P/Q Min Wage
Price Ceiling EP/EQ
D
QS QD QD QS
∙ Price Floor government sets minimum legal minimum price (ex: agricultural products) Minimum Wage regulation that makes hiring of labor below a specified wage rage illegal
o Effects
Illegal hiring some workers and firms agree to wages lower
Search As workers search for jobs, they're unemployed
Only workers who find jobs with little search and labor unions
gain, all businesses and unemployed workers lose, society loses
∙ Taxes
Tax Incidence division of burden of tax between buyers and sellers Supply curve shifts up by amount of tax
Ex: Tax of $2
Seller pays $1 and buyer pays $1
Government tax revenue = Tax X EQ
CS, DWL, PS (triangles on graph)
EQ
EP + tax = $4 EP = $3
PS = $2
Tax incidence depends on Price Elasticity of Demand
o PED > PES (elastic) = suppliers pay more of tax
o PED < PES (inelastic) = demanders pay more of tax
∙ Taxes and Fairness (book, not Rush)
Benefits Principle people should pay taxes equal to the benefits they receive from the services provided by government (benefit most = pay most)
Ability to pay principle people should pay taxes in accordance with their ability to pay ∙ Production Quotas and Subsidies (Ex: Farming) (Again, book, not Rush)
Production Quota upper limit to quantity of good that may be produced (has effect only if below EQ)
o Effects
decrease in supply
rise in price
decrease in marginal cost
inefficient underproduction
incentive to cheat and overproduce
Subsidies payment made by government to a producer (mostly to agricultural products) o Effects
increase in supply
fall in price and increase in QD
increase in marginal cost
payments by government to farmers
inefficient overproduction
∙ Market for Illegal Goods (book, not Rush, so I'll be brief)
Penalties on sellers (ex: illegal drugs) additional cost in production and supply decreases (curve shifts to left)
Penalties on buyers (ex: illegal drugs) additional cost to buy and demand decreases (curve shifts to left)
Penalties on sellers and buyers both supply and demand curves shift (ex: Penalty is higher on sellers of illegal drugs than buyers, so supply curve shifts more than demand, causing the price to rise)
Ch 7 (Lectures 20 and 21)
∙ Imports goods and services that we buy from other countries
∙ Exports good and services that we sell to other countries
Comparative and absolute advantage (see Ch 2)
o Ex: China outperforms US in tshirt production, but US outperforms China is airplane production
Exports
World Price
EP EP
World Price
Imports
EQ
Effects of Exports
o Winners: Producers and Society
o Losers: Consumers
Effects of Imports
o Winners: Consumers and Society
o Losers: Producers
∙ Trade Restrictions
EQ
Tariff tax on a good that is imposed by the importing country when an import crosses an international boundary (works like a tax, see tax graph in Ch 6)
o P rises, QD falls, domestic prod. rises, imports fall and tariff revenue created o Effects
Losers: Consumers and Society
Winners: Producers and Government
Import Quota restriction that limits max quantity of a good that may be imported in a given period (shifts supply curve to the right)
o P rises, QD falls, imports fall, domestic prod. rises and DWL created o Effects
Losers: Consumers and Society
Winners: Producers and Importers
Other Import barriers regulatory (book, not Rush)
o Health, safety (ex: beef imports fall, with mad cow disease)
o Voluntary export restraints governmentimposed restrictions on exports
o Export subsidies government payments to producers of exports (illegal)
∙ The Case Against Protection (book, not Rush)
Trade restrictions help because...
o Helps infant industries grow (needs time to become productive enough to
compete with international companies)
o Counteracts dumping foreign firm sells exports at lower price than its cost of production to undercut domestic businesses
o Saves domestic jobs
o Allows US to compete with cheap foreign labor
o Penalizes law environmental standards
o Prevents rich countries from exploiting developing countries
o Reduces offshore outsourcing US firms buy finished goods or service from firms in other countries
∙ Why is international trade restricted?
Tariff revenue goes to government
Rent seeking lobbying for special treatment by government to create profit or divert consumer/ producer surplus away from others
Ch 8 (Lectures 22, 23 and part of 24)
∙ Consumption Possibilities (book not Rush, not very important so I'll be brief) All the things you can afford to buy
Budget Line marks boundary between combinations of goods and services that an individual can afford and can't afford to buy.
∙ Utility benefit or satisfaction a person gets from consumption of goods and services Total Utility all of the benefit a person gets from consuming all goods and services Marginal Utility change in total utility resulting from a oneunit increase in quantity consumed
o (change in TU) / (change in Q)
Diminishing Marginal Utility increases in utility get smaller as consumptions rises
Units
of
Utility
Quantity Consumed
o Consumer Equilibrium consumer allocates all available income in the way that maximizes their total utility, using the prices of such goods and services
o Marginal Analysis compares MU/dollar on each good ("bang for your buck")
Marginal Utility per dollar marginal utility that results from spending one more dollar on a good (MU / P)
UtilityMaximizing Rule
Spend all available income
Equalize MU/dollar
o Ex: Sam loves pizza and soda. Both cost $4, and his income in $20. Pizza Soda
Q
TU TU
M
U
MU
MU/
MU/PP
0
0
1
16
160
40
Pizz0
Sod
TU
2
28a
120 a
30
05
0
0+460=460
3
364
80 1
20
420+240=660
03
2
360+320=680
280+360=640
4
422
60 3
15
01
4
160+380=540
0
5
0+388=388
5
46
40
10
0
Q
0
0
1
240
240
60
2
320
80
20
cases of soda
3
360
40
10
4
380
20
5
price of the movies?
5
388
8
2
Greatest Utility
∙ Predictions using Greatest Utility Theory Ex: Movies cost $8, soda costs $4, and Lisa's income is $40. She decides to see 2 movies and buy 6
o What happens if there is a fall in the
Calculatin
g her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 6 movies and 4
cases of soda.
o What happens if there is a rise in the price of soda?
Calculating her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 6 movies
and 2 cases of soda
o What happens if there is a rise in her income?
Calculating her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 8 movies
and 6 cases of soda
∙ Paradox of value (Ex: Diamonds worth more than water)
TU of water > TU of diamonds but...
MU of water < MU of diamonds
∙ Explaining Consumer Choices (Rush doesn't really mention this, but the book includes it) Behavioral Economics study of ways limits on human brain's ability to compute and implement rational decisions influence economic behavior
o Bounded rationality
o Bounded willpower
o Bounded selfinterest
o Endowment effect
Neuroeconomics study of activity of human brain when a person makes an economic decision
∙ Ordinal v. Cardinal Utility (Rush, not book)
Ordinal Utility Assumes a person can tell us if a change makes them better off, worse off or no change
Cardinal Utility Assumes we can measure a person's utility
o In this chapter (Ch 8), we use cardinal utility. A prime example of cardinal utility is insurance, which will be Ch 20, but Rush briefly explained a bit of ordinal utility, which is Ch 9
Ch 9 (Part of Lecture 26) *Don't worry it's not the whole chapter just part about ordinal utility ∙ Indifference Curves consumer is indifferent among any combination of goods on an indifference curve
Person prefers each point ( ) in relation to initial point ( ), but indifferent to ( ) Bread
Wine
Ch 20 (Lectures 2426)
∙ Insurance uses cardinal utility (see Ch 8) to study decisions under risk Risk Aversion dislike of risk
o Ex: Mark has a car. His car is worth $5,000 with no accident but only $1000 with an accident.
Wealth/Income
TU
MU (per $1,000)
0
0
$1000
150
150
$2000
250
100
$3000
300
50
$4000
330
30
$5000
350
20
Mark has a 50/50 chance of having an accident so without insurance...
Car Worth
Utility
50% No Accident
$5000
350
50% Accident
$1000
150
o Expected Wealth money value of what a person expects to own at a given point in time
EW = ($5000 x 0.5) + ($1000 x 0.5) = $3000
o Expected Utility utility value of what a person expects to own at a given point in time
EU = (350 x 0.5) + (150 x 0.5) = 250
Will Mark buy this insurance policy if the premium is $2000 and it pays $4000 with accident and $0 with no accident?
With Insurance
Car Worth
Utility
50% No Accident
$5000 + $0 (insurance pays)
$2000 (premium) = $3000
300
50% Accident
$1000 + $4000 $2000 = $3000
300
EU = (3000 x 0.5) + (3000 x 0.5) = $3000
EW = (300 x 0.5) + (300 x 0.5) = 300
*EU w/ insurance > EU w/out insurance, so Mark
will buy the policy
∙ Insurance: Supply
Ex: With a Premium of $3000, will the company sell insurance?
o Revenue per person $3000
o Expected Cost ($4000 x 0.5) + ($0 x 0.5) = $2000
o Expected Profit = (Revenue Cost) or $3000 $2000 = $1000
The company makes a profit of $1000, so yes they will sell
Increased Risk? (80% accident, 20% no accident)
o Rev $3000
o EC (4000 x .8) + (0 x 0.5) = $3600
o Expected Profit = $3000 $3600 = $600
The company would have to increase its premium to sell
∙ Private Information info about the value of an item being traded that is possessed by only buyers or sellers (asymmetric)
Adverse selection tendency for people to enter into agreements in which they use their private information to their advantage (Companies can sell policies to people who are riskier than they thought)
o Ex: Bank lends loan and knows risk that creditor may default on loan (credit/default risk)
o Signaling consumers signal ways that show their level of risk (ex: grades) o Screening sellers require private info about person to determine level of risk and sell policy appropriate to their risk level
Moral hazard tendency for people with private info to use such info to their benefit and cost of uninformed party
Lemons problem problem that in a market, it's not possible to distinguish reliable products from bad products (lemons)
o Pooling equilibrium equilibrium of market when one message is sent out to all consumers and no one can determine quality
o Separating equilibrium equilibrium of market when signaling provides full info to a previously uninformed party
Ch 9 (Lectures 26, 29 and 30)
∙ Indifference Curves consumer is indifferent among any combination of goods on an indifference curve
Person prefers each point ( ) in relation to initial point ( ), but indifferent to ( )
Bread
∙ Bowed in due to MRS
Steep slope = high
MRS
Flatter slope = low
MRS
IC2
Wine
Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRS) magnitude of slope on indifference curve (IC) (absolute value)
o Decreasing MRS MRS decreases as you move downward along an IC
∙ Budget Lines limit to a household's consumption choices, marks boundary between what they can and can't afford
Real income household's income expressed as a quantity afforded Relative price ration of price of one good to the price of another (opp cost) Think of PPF
Qw
Qb
0
20
1
16
2
12
3
8
4
4
0
5
Qb
Unaffordable
Affordable + Efficient
Ex: Income = $10 Pw = $2
Pb = $0.50
Aff. + Ineff.
Qw
Income/ Budget Constraint
o (Pw X Qw) + (Pb X Qb) = Income
Pw X Qw Pw X Qw
Pb X Qb = Inc (Pw X Qw)
Pb Pb Pb
Qb = Pw X Qw + Inc
Pb Pb
o Remember Y = MX + b?
M is slope, b is vertical intercept so...
o Qb = Pw X Qw + Inc
Pb Pb
o Y = MX + b
∙ Changing the Budget Line
What happens when price changes? (Price effect) Qb Qb
Q
b
Slope = _ Pw
Pb
Q
w
Inc Pb
What if Pw decreases What if Pb decreases?
Pw rises? Pb rises?
Qw Qw
o A fall in price rotates budget line outward
o A rise in price rotates budget line inward
What happens if income changes? (income effect)
o A fall in income shifts budget line inward
o A rise in income shifts budget line outward
∙ Degree of Substitutability (Indifference Curves)
Perfect substitutes linear graph
Perfect complements Lshaped
Subs Comps
∙ Indifference Curves with Budget Lines
Point lies on IC 2 and is therefore less desired than a point on IC 3
Budget
Line
Point is preferable to point
Point is preferable to point
Point is the best affordable point because IDC 3 is preferable to IC 2 and this point lies both in IC 3 and on the budget line
Point is unattainable because IC 4 does not touch the budget line and is unaffordable.
If price or income changes, as seen in graphs involving price and income changes, then a new budget line is created and anything outside of that budget curve is unaffordable and therefore a new best affordable point is created.
Indifference curves are also used to plot a demand curve. As price falls or rises, the demand of an individual falls or rises consequently
o This proves the Law of Demand
With ICs, we assume that
1. People want to maximize utility
2. People can tell if change helps/hurts/doesn't change
3. MRS decreases down along IC
Ch 10 (Lectures 30, 31) Rush doesn't go into detail in Ch 10, so I'll include the bare essentials
∙ Firm institution that hires factors of production and organizes those factors to produce and sell goods and services
Goal is to maximize economic profit total revenue minus total cost
o Total cost is the opportunity cost of production using resources
bought in the market
owned by the firm
Implicit Rental Rate firm's opp cost of using capital it
owns
economic depreciation fall in market value of a
firm's capital
forgone interest opportunity cost of earning interest
on funds that could have been reallocated
supplied by firm's owner
Owner might supply entrepreneurship and labor
Normal Profit average profit earned by entrepreneur
Firm's decisions
1. What to produce and what quantities
2. How to produce
3. How to organize managers and workers
4. How to market and price products
5. What to produce itself and buy from others
Constrained by
Technology method of producing good or service
Information lack for future and present
Market prices and marketing of other firms
∙ Technological and Economic Efficiency
Technological Efficiency firm produces given output using least amount of input Economic Efficiency firm produces given output at the least cost
∙ Information and Organization
Command system method of organizing production using managerial hierarchy Incentive system method of organizing production that uses a marketlike mechanism inside the firm
o PrincipleAgent Problem problem of devising compensation rules that induce an agent to act in the best interest of a principal
Solving the problem
Ownership
Incentive Pay
Longterm contracts
Types of Business Organization
o Proprietorship firm with single owner who has unlimited liability o Partnership firm with 2 or more partners who have joint unlimited liability
o Corporation firm owned by limited liability stockholders
∙ Markets and the Competitive Environment
Perfect Competition many firms, each selling an identical product, many buyers and no restrictions on the entry of new firms into the industry
Monopolistic Competition market structure with a large number of firms competing by making similar but slightly different products (product
differentiation)
Oligopoly market structure in which a small number of firms compete Monopoly one firm that produces good with no close substitutes and protected by barrier preventing new firms from entering market
o Measures of concentration used to determine extent of markets
fourfirm concentration ratio percentage of value of sales
accounted for by four largest firms in industry (0100)
0 = perfect, 100 = monopoly
HerfindohlHirschman Index square of the percentage market
share of each firm of each summed over the largest 50 firms
small = perfect, large = monopoly
o Limits of Concentration Measure
geographical scope of market
barriers to entry and firm turnover
correspondence between a market and an industry
Markets are narrower than industries
Most firms make several products
Firms switch markets
∙ Produce or Outsource?
Firm Coordination coordinating production of various goods and activities Market Coordination adjusting prices and making decisions of buyers and sellers consistent
o Firms are more efficient because
Lower transaction costs costs that arise from finding someone
with whom to do business with
Economies of scale cost of producing a unit of a good falls as
output rate increases
Economies of scope specialized resources to produce a range of
goods and services
Economies of team production individuals in a group specialize in
mutually supportive tasks
∙ Stock Market (Rush, not book)
*Highly recommended to read the stock market essays on Canvas, Rush hinted they might be on the test
Higher rates of return
Corporations
o one or more shareholders with a board of directors that oversees managers Shareholders own, executive managers run
Board of directors has to approve large decisions and give advice
Elected by shareholders
How does a company get finances?
1. Issuing stock
2. Borrowing (banks and bonds)
Terminology
o Market cap = measures business worth
o Average volume = # of shares sold and bought in one day
o EPS = earnings per share
o DIV & Yield = dividend or payment for shares
Some companies don't pay dividends
1. small or nonexistent profits
2. strong growth prospects
o Capital Gain/Loss = current price price bought at
o P/E = Price/earnings ratio (price / EPS)
Ch 11 (Lectures 32, 33 and part of 34)
∙ Production Function F(L, K) = Q
F = firm, L = labor, K = capital and Q = quantity supplied
L and K are inputs, Q is output
∙ Speed of change in L and K differ
Short run a period of time over which at least one input is fixed
Long run a period of time long enough so that all inputs can be varied
Short Run
Long Run
L
Variable
Variable
K
Fixed
Variable
Ex:
K
L
Q
MPlab
FC
V
C
TC
2
0
0
$6
$0
$6
2
1
5
5
6
4
10
2
2
1
2
7
6
8
14
2
3
1
8
6
6
12
18
2
4
2
2
4
6
16
22
2
5
2
3
1
6
20
26
Marginal Product of Labor (MPlab) = change in Q / change in L
Diminishing MPL = As L increases, eventually MPL
decreases
Fixed costs fixed inputs
Variable costs variable inputs
Total cost FC + VC = TC
∙ Measures of short run
Total product max output that a given quantity of labor can produce
o Similar to PPF in that a firm can only produce using a set amount of labor, but can't produce outside the total product curve. Only points on the curve are efficient
Marginal product increase in total product that results from a oneunit increase in the quantity of labor employed
o Law of diminishing returns As a firm uses more of a variable factor of production with a fixed quantity of the fixed factor then the MP eventually diminishes
Average product equal to TP / QL
o Average product highest when = MP
∙ Costs of short run
Total fixed, variable and total cost cost of all factors
Average fixed, variable and total cost total costs per unit of output
o AFC = FC / Q
o AVC = VC / Q
o ATC = AVC + AFC or TC / Q
Marginal cost increase in TC that results from oneunit increase in output o (change in TC) / (change in Q)
Marginal/Average relationship
o If M? > A?, then A? rises
o If M? < A?, the A? falls
Shifts in cost curves
o Technology productivity increase = MP and AP of labor increase
o Prices of factors of production price increase = firm's costs increase
∙ Long run
Production Function and diminishing returns (see above)
Longrun average cost curve relationship between the lowest attainable average total cost and output when the firm changes both production and labor (Ushaped) Economies of scale features of firm's technology that make average cost fall as output increases (LRAC curve slopes down)
Diseconomies of scale features of a firm's technology that make average total cost rise as output increases (LRAC curve slopes up)
Constant returns to scale features of firm's technology that keep ATC constant as output increases (LRAC curve slope is constant)
o Minimum efficient scale smallest output at which longrun average cost reaches its lowest level
∙ Graph (Sorry I couldn't replicate it on the computer, so I hand drew it. Hope it helps)
Ch 12 (Lectures 34 36)
∙ Perfect competition factors
lots of firms and buyers
Products produced are identical
no "barriers to entry" (legal or costbased)
o Price takers firm that cannot influence the market price because its
production is an insignificant part of the total market
o Total revenue P X Q
o Marginal Revenue (change in TR) / (change in Q)
MR
Q
P
TR
20
$5
$100
$5
21
$5
$105
$5
22
$5
$110
P Firm Market S
$5 D = MR $5
20 40 q 35 D
MC
MC < MR MC > MR
$5 D = MR
$1.20
$1 Produce where MC = MR
1 5 q*
∙ Total Profit = (P X q*) (ATC X q*)
Economic Profit occurs when the profit is above average
o P > ATC
Normal Profit is average profit
o P = ATC
Economic Loss occurs when the firm produces below average profit
o P < ATC
o Shutdown Point Rule:
If P > ATC, then the firm will stay open
If P < ATC, then the firm will close
In the short run, a firm will stay open even with a loss due to FC,
but in the long run, it will close when its FC becomes VC.
∙ Market and Firm in changing supply
When D shifts R, P rises, but in long run S shifts with more suppliers and P falls back P S S' P
P* P*
P
D
D '
Q q* q' q
Ch 13 (Lectures 37 38)
∙ Monopoly one firm that produces products with no close substitutes and insurmountable barriers to entry into its market.
Barriers to entry ownership, legal or natural
o natural monopoly economies of scale enable one firm to supply entire market at the lowest possible cost (cost based)
o legal monopoly competition and entry restricted by granting of legal rights
Demand always elastic
Market demand curve is the same as the firm's demand curve
o P > MR
P
Demand
MR Q
∙ Monopoly Profit
P
Q
TR
MR
$12
0
$0
10
1
10
$10
8
2
16
6
6
3
18
2
4
4
16
2
2
5
10
6
Rules for max profit are same for perfectly competitive firms and monopolies P MC
P*
D
Q* MR Q
Short run and long run
o Perfectly competitive = short run economic profit becomes normal profit in the long run as firms enter marker
o Monopoly = short run economic profit becomes long run economic profit because barriers to entry prevent other firms from entering
Monopolies create a DWL
o P monopoly > P perf. comp.
o QM > PPC
∙ Price discrimination selling at different prices
Types
1. same unit to different people at different prices (ex: student discount)
2. different units at different prices (ex: 1st and 2nd ice cream scoop)
Conditions
1. Two or more groups with different demands
2. firm must be able to identify groups
3. firm must be able to prevent resale of product
Perfect price discrimination occurs if a firm can sell each unit of output for highest price someone is willing to pay for it
∙ Monopoly Regulation
Regulation/ deregulation
o marginal cost pricing rule
o average cost pricing rule
o rate of return regulation
o price cap regulation
Theories
o Social Interest political and regulatory process relentlessly seeks out inefficiency and introduces regulation that eliminates DWL and allocates resources efficiently o Capture regulation serves the selfinterest of the producer, who captures the economic profit
Ch 14 (Lecture 40)
∙ Monopolistic competition
large # of firms
Product Differentiation products slightly different
Compete on quality, price and marketing
firms can enter and exit freely
MC
P ATC MC
P* Profit ATC
D D
Q* MR Q MR Q
Short Run = Eco Profit Long Run = Normal profit
Mono. comp. firms don't produce at the ATC min, but perf. comp firms do o Efficient Scale Q at which ATC is minimum
excess capacity produce less then efficient scale
markup amount by which P > MC
∙ Advertising and produce development
signals buyers action to inform people
o brand names
Ch 15 (Lectures 4043)
∙ Oligopoly
Natural or legal barriers to entry, but not insurmountable
small number of firms compete (ex: AT&T and Verizon)
o firms are interdependent
o cartel group of firms acting together to limit output and raise price and profit Duopoly two firms compete
Game theory strategic behaviors based on collusive agreement (developed by John Nash)
Elements of a game
o Rules
o Strategies
o Payoff
Payoff Matrix
Firm A
Firm B
Comply
Cheat
Comply
A= $200
B= $200
A= $300
B= $50
Cheat
A= $50
B= $300
A= $0
B= $0
o Nash Equilibrium each player uses his or her best strategy taking as given the competitor's
strategy
Firm A
B complies = cheat
B cheats = cheat
Firm B
A complies = cheat
A cheats = cheat
Dominant Strategy same strategy every time
Real life is a repeated game
o Cooperative equilibrium players make and share the monopoly profit
o Titfortat strategy Firm A does what Firm B did in the last game
∙ Game of Chicken
Similar to Payoff Matrix, except loss is greatest when both comply, and least when only one complies and the other cheats
o No dominant strategy
∙ Antitrust laws
Sherman Act (1890) outlawed "contract in restraint of trade" and made "every person who shall monopolize guilty of felony".
o Resale Price Maintenance supplier tells retailer minimum price of product
Clayton Act (1914) Specific acts are prohibited if "lessen competition or tend to create monopoly".
o Price discrimination
o Exclusive dealings
o Interlocking directorates
o Tying contracts sell one product only with purchase of another product
o Predatory pricing low price drives competitors outthen high price
o acquisition of competitor's shares
Ex: Walmart tries to buy Target
Formulas to Remember
∙ Totals
TC = FC + VC
TC = ATC X Q
FC = AFC X Q
VC = AVC X Q
∙ Averages
ATC = AFC + AVC
ATC = TC / Q
AFC = FC / Q
AVC = VC / Q
∙ Marginals
MP labor = change Q / change C
MC = change TC / change Q
MR = change TR / change Q
∙ Stock Market
P.E. Ratio = Price/ earnings per share
Dividend yield = DIV / Price X 100
∙ Facts
If Q = 0, then VC = $0
If Q = 0, then TC = FC
Ch 16 (Lectures 44, 4750)
∙ Public choices decision that has consequences for many people and perhaps for an entire society
Decision makers
o voters max utility
o special interest groups
o politicians reelection
o bureaucrats size of bureacuracy
Political equilibrium choices of all voters, firms, politicians and bureaucrats are all compatible and no group can see a way of improving its position
∙ Public goods
Excludable possible to prevent someone from enjoying its benefits
Nonexcludable impossible from preventing someone from benefitting Rival one person's use decreases use for another
Nonrival one person's use does not decrease use for another
o Private good rival and excludable
o Public good nonrival and nonexcluable
o Common resource rival and nonexcludable
Quota limit on quantity consumed
o Natural monopoly good nonrival and excludable
Free rider problem economy provides an inefficiently small Q of public good Principle of minimum differentiation tendency for competitors to make themselves similar to appeal to max number of clients/voters
o inefficiency
Tragedy of the commons overuse of common resource that arises when users have no incentive to conserve it and use it sustainably
o Ex: overfishing
o MSC = MPC + MEC
∙ Healthcare
market failure without intervention
different approaches
o universal coverage, single payer (gov pays all)
o private government insurance
o subsidized private insurance (ex: Obamacare)
o vouchers token used to buy only the item specified
Ch 17 (Lectures 44, 4750 )
∙ Externalities (negative = cost, positive = benefit)
External cost when production or consumption of a good imposes a cost on someone who is not the producer or consumer
o Ex: Pollution
External benefit when production or consumption of a good creates a benefit for someone who is not the producer or consumer of the good
o education, flu vaccine
Market failure an unregulated market fails to produce the efficient quantity o DWL occurs
P S = MC (=) MSC
External cost
External benefit
D = MB (=) MSB
QEQ (=) Qeff Q
MSC
DWL S = MC
Qeff Qeq D = MB = MSB
MC
<
MSC
Labor
Labor
Capital
Capital
Ex: cow
Ex: cow
Tax
Water pollution
Marginal Private cost cost of producing an additional unit (falls on producer) Marginal external cost cost of producing an additional unit (falls on other people) Fixing the cost of externalities
o Establish property rights
Abatement technology reduces or prevents pollution
Produce less and pollute less
o Mandate clean technology (ex: Clean Air Act of 1970)
o Tax or cap and price pollution
Pigovian taxes tax = external cost
capandtrade upper limit on pollution (set on individual firms)
Marketable permit each firm receives permit for one unit of
external cost which they can sell and buy between other
firms with no limits
Government intervention
o Regulation
o Tax
o Coase Theorem determines cause of externalities, which is the absence of property rights
If transaction costs low and property rights assigned, then private market is efficient and no externalities
Achieving an Efficient Outcome
o Property rights
o Production quotas (individual firms have limits)
o Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) production limit assigned to an individual who can sell their ITQ to someone else
ex: fishermen
Marginal private benefit benefit of producing an additional unit (consumer receives)
Marginal external benefit benefit of producing an additional unit (received by others besides consumer)
o Ex: education
Fixing external benefits
o public production public authority produces
o subsidy payment to private producers by government
o voucher token given to households by government to buy specified goods most advantageous
Ex: food stamps
Ch 18 (Lectures 50 52)
∙ Factor Markets
Land supply is perfectly inelastic
o nonrenewable natural resources
Entrepreneurship not a market but a residual claimant
Capital returns accrue over time
Labor human resources, preferences matter
∙ Demand for factor
Derived demand derived from demand for goods and services that labor produces Value of marginal product value to a form of using one more factor of production o derives firm's demand curve for labor
Shifts
price of firm's outputs
price of substitute/ complement
Technology
Movement caused by change in wage rate
∙ Labor Market
Individual's curve leisure and labor supply
o reservation wage min wage willing to work
o backwardbending supply curve at a certain income level, a person would rather have more leisure time and work less hours
o Substitution effect higher wage is more incentive to work
o Income effect higher wage means higher income
S > I when inc in wage = inc in LS
I > S when inc in wage = dec in LS
Trends now
o rising wages and increased wage inequality
Wage differences
o preferences
o human capital (education and experience)
o discrimination
∙ Labor unions
decrease supply of labor (strikes)
increase labor demand
o increase value of MP
o lobby for import restrictions
o minimum wage laws
o restrictive immigration laws
Monopsony one employer in a market
o min wage increases both wage rate and employment
∙ Capital and Natural Resource markets
Capital rental market lower rental rate means a greater quantity supplied Land rental market lower rental rate means greater quantity supplied Natural nonrenewable resource markets
o Ex: oil
o Hotelling principle price is expected to rise at rate equal to interest rate Ch 19 (Lectures 52 53)
∙ Income
money v market income
Distribution
o Median income is $53,657
o Top 5% is $206,568
o Bottom 10% is $12,276
o Richest 25% has 90.4% of wealth
Lorenz Curve
o Used to measure distribution of income
o plots cumulative % of income against cumulative % of households
o Can also be used to see how income distribution in a country has changed over time
Line of Equality
Cumul. % Inc
Lorenz Curve
(More unequal)
Lorenz Curve (more equal) Cumul. % HH
Wealth value of things owned at a given point in time
o Income is a more reliable source of measurement
Gini ratio area between Lorenz curve and line of equality divided by entire area beneath line of equality
o 0 = completely equally distributed
o 1 = income extremely unequally distributed
o U.S. ratio is 0.47, world is 0.61
o increased in recent years
Poverty household's income is too low to be able to buy quantities of food, shelter and clothing necessary.
o U.S. level at $23,492 (46 million Americans)
o Poverty influences include race, age, work experience, physical ability and household status
o Examples: Finland and Sweden are relatively equal for income distribution while Brazil and South America are vastly unequal
Sources
o Human capital
value of marginal product for some workers > others
Technology replaces lowskilled workers
globalization
o Discrimination
Specialization in the household
race
o Negative wealth or inherited wealth
Redistribution
o Income taxes progressive
Progressive, proportional and regressive taxes
o Income maintenance
Social security
Unemployment compensation
Welfare
Ex: food stamps and TANF
Subsidizations for student tuition, etc.
o Big tradeoff tradeoff between equity and efficiency when it comes to income redistribution
$1 in tax does not mean $1 to help someone in poverty
Study Guide Final Exam
∙ Exam Date: Dec 14th
∙ Covers Ch 1 20 in textbook and lectures from the entire class
∙ This study guide will cover the most important parts of the chapters in the text and lectures from the class
∙ You are allowed one 3x5 index card on this exam, so if there's anything in this study guide that you feel confused about, include it in your index card!
Ch 1 (Lecture 2 and part of 3)
∙ Economics social science that studies choices that people or businesses make as they cope with scarcity and the factors that influence these decisions
Scarcity inability to satisfy all wants
Incentive reward/penalty that encourages/discourages an action
∙ Difference between macro and micro (in this course, we study micro) Microeconomics the study of individual firms, consumers and markets within the economy
Macroeconomics the study of the overall/aggregate economy
∙ The three big questions
What goods and services will be produced?
o Goods: physical objects
o Services: tasks performed for consumers
How will the g and s be produced?
o Factors of production (land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship)
For whom will they be produced?
o Landrent
o Labor wages (earns most)
o Capital interest
o Entrepreneurship profit
∙ Economic structure
Tradition the answer this year is the same as last year (follows a pattern) Command Economic planners devise answers and create plans (ex: North Korea) Consider: Selfinterest vs. social/public interest
o Selfinterest best decision for yourself
o Social Interest best decision for everyone
Economists favor efficient resource use no one can be better off
without someone else being worse off
∙ There are five things that Rush does not talk about in his lectures from this chapter, but he includes about 510% of his questions from the book, so it might be helpful to know. Issues in today's world regarding social vs.self interest
o Globalization (expansion of trade and investments)
o InformationAge Monopolies (Information Revolution)
o Climate Change (Burning fossil fuels for use)
o Financial Instability (unpaid loans)
∙ Economic way of thinking
Tradeoffs giving up one thing to get something else
Rational choices comparing benefits (gains) and costs (give up)
o Benefit determined by preferences (what a person likes/dislikes)
o Opportunity cost highest valued alternative given up
Ex: Sally loves both tacos and pizza. Both cost $4. Sally would
rather get a taco than a pizza slice. When she gets a taco, her opp.
cost is the pizza slice.
Choices made at the margin compare benefit of more of something with its cost o Marginal Benefit benefit received from one more unit consumed
Measured as max amount willing to pay for one more unit
o Marginal Cost opp cost of producing one more unit
Measured as increase in total cost/increase in output
Respond to incentives (see first bullet)
∙ Positive v. Normative Statements
Positive: what is
Negative: what should be
Economic model explains economic world descriptions of some aspects that include only features needed for purpose at hand
Ch 2 (Lectures 37)
∙ Production Possibilities Frontier (PPF) boundary between combinations of g + s that are produced at lowest possible cost
Good A
Not
Attainable and production
Attainable but not
efficient
Good B
There is no opp cost from going to production inefficient to pro. eff. Choice along PPF (as you move along line) is a tradeoff
Point may be located inside because resources are not being used efficiently Law of increasing opportunity cost bowed outward because resources are not equally productive at each point
o Opp cost= lose/gain
o Allocative Efficiency g+s produced at lowest cost with greatest benefit (in other words, you can't produce more of one without giving up other) PPF shows limits to production
o Resources (labor, capital, land and entrepreneurship)
If resources increase/decrease, PPF bows outward/inward
o Technology
Marginal cost is slope of the PPF
Marginal Benefit Curve shows marginal benefit and quantity consumed (unrelated to PPF curve
o Similar to demand curve
o principle of decreasing marginal benefit (more of good, less marginal benefit)
Ex: 1st slice of pizza has more benefit to you than the 10th slice of
pizza, when you're not as hungry
∙ Economic growth expands PPF outward
Ex: Hong Kong catching up to US
Good A
Good B
Technological change development of new goods or ways to produce Capital accumulation growth of capital resources (including human capital) ∙ Need to know terms (economic coordination)
Firm economic unit that hires factors of production to sell g+s
Market arrangement that allows buyers and seller to get info and do business o Competitive no buyer or seller influences
Property rights social arrangement that governs ownership and use of valued property (real, financial and intellectual)
Money commodity or token accepted as payment
∙ Trade Gains (Rush doesn't mention this until Lecture 20, but its included in Ch 2, so I'll mention it here)
Comparative Advantage country/person can perform activity at lower cost than others (ex: Suppose US outperforms China in rice and shirt production, but is better at producing shirts than rice, so China produces the rice)
Absolute Advantage country/person is more productive than others in all activities (ex: Suppose US outperforms China in rice and shirt production)
Ch 3 (Lectures 8 ) *This chapter is most crucial of all, I recommend you research it more in depth in addition to the study guide!
∙ Markets and Prices
Competitive Market See markets in Ch 2
Money price dollars exchanged for good or service
Relative price ratio of one price to another (opportunity cost)
∙ Demand
Law of Demandhigher the price of a good, the smaller the quantity demanded and lower the price, higher the quantity demanded (P QD and vice versa) Demand entire relationship between price of good and QD
o want, afford and plan to buy
Quantity demanded amount of a good or service that consumers plan to buy during a given time period at a particular price (point on demand curve) o Change in QD (caused by change in price) indicates a movement along the demand curve
Demand Curve relationship between QD and its price (other influences constant) Price
Quantity Demanded
Change in Demand
o Indicates a shift of the demand curve
o *The way I remember change in QD or change in demand is that
movement is two syllables move and ment, just like quantity demanded is two words. Shift is one syllable, like how demand is only one word. (This can also apply for supply). Hope this helps :)
o Caused by 6 factors
Price of related goods
Complement good used with another good
Substitute good that can replace another good
Expected future prices
Income
Normal gooddemand increases as income increases
Inferior good demand decreases as income increases
Credit market conditions
Preferences
# of demanders
∙ Supply
Law of Supply The higher the price of a good, the greater the quantity supplied of it, and the lower the price, the lower the QS
Price
Quantity
Supplied
Supply entire relationship between price of good and QS
Supply Curve relationship between QS and price (other influences constant) o See curve above
Quantity supplied amount of good or service that producers plan to sell during a given time period at a particular price
o Change in QS (caused by change in price) indicates movement along the supply curve
Change in Supply
o Indicates a shift of the supply curve
o Caused by 6 factors
Cost (of factors of production)
Technology
# of suppliers
Price of related goods
Subs in production uses same materials (ex: leather wallets
and leather belts)
Comps in production produced together (beef and
cowhide)
State of Nature (natural occurrences that affect resources)
Expected future prices (opposite demand pattern)
∙ Market Equilibrium
Equilibrium price price where QD = QS
Equilibrium quantity quantity bought and sold at equilibrium price P S
EP
D
EQ Q
If QD > QS, then price is too low and there is a shortage, and the price goes up If QS > QD, then price is too high and there is a surplus and the price goes down ∙ Shifting the Demand OR Supply Curve
P and Q rise = demand curve shifts right
P rises and Q falls = supply curve shifts left
P falls and Q rises = supply curve shifts right
P and Q fall = demand curve shifts left
∙ Shifting both Demand and Supply
D shift> than S shift = P and Q rise
D shift< than S shift = P falls and Q rises
∙ Rush's 4step method for shifts of supply OR demand curves
1. Draw demand and supply diagram
2. Which curve shifts?
3. Determine direction of shift
4. Draw a new line
Ch 4 (Lectures 1214)
∙ Price Elasticity of Demand responsiveness of the QD of a good to a change in the price % change QD/ % change P
o You can calculate the % change in P or QD with the formula:
(% change in P) / (average price x 100)
o Ex: Original price of pizza was $20.50 and the new price is $19.50. The price change is $1 and the average price ((19.5 + 20.5)/2) is $20, so 1/20 is 5%.
o Use the Slope Formula (rise/run) to find change in P/change in QD
Still confused? Try combining the two formulas into the
commonly used MidPoint Formula:
change in QD / average QD
change in P / average P
*The elasticity is the magnitude of response we know if it's
negative or positive based on Law of Demand, so it's always
expressed as a positive
Types of Elasticity
o "Perfectly Elastic"demand with an infinity price elasticity (vertical
demand curve)
o Elastic E>1 (almost vertical)
o "Perfectly Inelastic" demand with zero price elasticity (horizontal demand curve)
o Inelastic 0<E<1 (almost horizontal)
o Unit Elastic E = 1 (% change in P = % change in QD)
∙ Factors that Influence Elasticity
# of substitutes
Proportion of income spent
Time elapsed since price change (Rush doesn't include this, but it's in the book) ∙ *Elasticity changes as you go down a downward slope
Total Revenue Test method of estimating price elasticity of demand by observing change in total revenue results from a change in price
o Total Revenue value of firm's sales
P of good X QD
E>1 E=infinit
y
E=
1
E< 1
E=
∙ Other types of Elasticities of Demand
Cross E. of D. responsiveness of demand for a good of a sub or comp o (% change in QD) / (% change in price of sub(+)/comp())
Helpful Hint: Substitute= Positive, Complement= Negative
Income E. of D. responsiveness of demand to change in income
o (% change in QD) / (% change in income)
IED>0 = normal good
IED<0 = inferior good
∙ Price Elasticity of Supply responsiveness of QS of a good to change in price (% change in QD) / (% change in income)
Similar to P.E. of Demand with graphs and elasticity
Two factors affect magnitude of elasticity (Rush doesn't mention these, but they're in the book, so I suggest studying them a bit)
o Resource substitution possibilities
productive resources available, then E will be greater
o Time frame for the supply decision
Momentary supply (response of sellers to a price change at the very
moment it changes)
Shortrun supply (response after some adjustments, such as
technology, are made)
Longrun supply (response made after all adjustments are made)
Ch 5 (Lecture 15, 16 and part of 17)
∙ Allocation of resources (Rush doesn't mention this in his lectures, so I'll be brief, but it's good to know, just in case)
Market Price
Command system someone of authority allocates
Majority rule
Contest
Firstcome, firstserved
Lottery
Personal Characteristics (Ex: Marriage) (In the workplace, this is not allowed) Force (Ex: military, war)
∙ Demand and Marginal Benefit
Marginal Analysis compares marginal benefit to marginal cost
o MB>MC, do action
o MB<MC, don't do action
o Ex: The director has eaten 4 slices of pizza at $4 a slice. All his slices combined are his total benefit, but the benefit he gets from eating a fifth
slice is his marginal benefit (max price willing to pay for next slice)
o Marginal Benefit = marginal social benefit (demand curve)
Benefit to consumer from one more unit of good
When Q rises, MSB falls
When Q falls, MSB rises
o Marginal cost = marginal social cost (supply curve)
opp. cost of producing one more unit (producer)
When Q rises, MSC rises
When Q falls, MSC falls
∙ Allocative Efficiency one point on PPF where it is not possible to produce more of one good without producing less of another valued more (see ch 2)
MSB = MSC
Total Surplus
EP Allocatively Efficient Quantity (same as Equlibrium)
EQ
Consumer Surplus
EP All. Eff. (Equ.)
Producer Surplus
Total Surplus sum of consumer and producer surplus (measures efficiency)
EQ
Consumer Surplus (marginal benefit price paid) / quantity bought
Producer Surplus (price marginal cost) / quantity sold
o Finding areas of surpluses = area of triangle (1/2BH)
∙ Market Failure market delivers inefficient outcome
Underproduction = Deadweight Loss measure of inefficiency, decrease in total surplus due to inefficient production
Overproduction = deadweight loss from surplus
Under (DWL)
Over (DWL)
Sources of market failure (Again, Rush doesn't include this, this is from the book) o P and Q Regulations
o Taxes and subsidies
o Externalities
o Public goods and common recources
o Monopoly
o High transaction costs opp. costs of trades in market
∙ Fairness of Market and Theories
Adam Smith "Suppliers and demanders pursue selfinterest and social interest at the same time." (Invisible Hand)
Rules of fairness (book, not Rush)
o Not fair if the result isn't fair
Utilitarianism principle that states that we should strive to achieve
"the greatest happiness for the greatest # of people"
Big tradeoff tradeoff between efficiency and fairness
Make poor welloff (John Rawls A Theory of Justice)
o Not fair is rules aren't fair
Symmetry principle people in similar situations treated similar
Fairness rules (Robert Nozick Anarchy, State and Utopia)
1. State enforces laws that establish and protect private property
2. Private property transferred voluntarily
Ch 6 (Lectures 1720)
∙ Price Ceiling/ Price Cap government sets max legal price that can be charged (ex: rent) Rent ceiling price ceiling for rent
o Effects
Black Market markets in which otherwise legal goods are traded
at an illegal price (ex: key money)
Search activity time spent looking for someone to buy or sell a
good
Housing shortage (QD>QS)
Only sellers and buyer with little search gain, society loses
Shortage S Unemployment
Equilibrium P/Q Min Wage
Price Ceiling EP/EQ
D
QS QD QD QS
∙ Price Floor government sets minimum legal minimum price (ex: agricultural products) Minimum Wage regulation that makes hiring of labor below a specified wage rage illegal
o Effects
Illegal hiring some workers and firms agree to wages lower
Search As workers search for jobs, they're unemployed
Only workers who find jobs with little search and labor unions
gain, all businesses and unemployed workers lose, society loses
∙ Taxes
Tax Incidence division of burden of tax between buyers and sellers Supply curve shifts up by amount of tax
Ex: Tax of $2
Seller pays $1 and buyer pays $1
Government tax revenue = Tax X EQ
CS, DWL, PS (triangles on graph)
EQ
EP + tax = $4 EP = $3
PS = $2
Tax incidence depends on Price Elasticity of Demand
o PED > PES (elastic) = suppliers pay more of tax
o PED < PES (inelastic) = demanders pay more of tax
∙ Taxes and Fairness (book, not Rush)
Benefits Principle people should pay taxes equal to the benefits they receive from the services provided by government (benefit most = pay most)
Ability to pay principle people should pay taxes in accordance with their ability to pay ∙ Production Quotas and Subsidies (Ex: Farming) (Again, book, not Rush)
Production Quota upper limit to quantity of good that may be produced (has effect only if below EQ)
o Effects
decrease in supply
rise in price
decrease in marginal cost
inefficient underproduction
incentive to cheat and overproduce
Subsidies payment made by government to a producer (mostly to agricultural products) o Effects
increase in supply
fall in price and increase in QD
increase in marginal cost
payments by government to farmers
inefficient overproduction
∙ Market for Illegal Goods (book, not Rush, so I'll be brief)
Penalties on sellers (ex: illegal drugs) additional cost in production and supply decreases (curve shifts to left)
Penalties on buyers (ex: illegal drugs) additional cost to buy and demand decreases (curve shifts to left)
Penalties on sellers and buyers both supply and demand curves shift (ex: Penalty is higher on sellers of illegal drugs than buyers, so supply curve shifts more than demand, causing the price to rise)
Ch 7 (Lectures 20 and 21)
∙ Imports goods and services that we buy from other countries
∙ Exports good and services that we sell to other countries
Comparative and absolute advantage (see Ch 2)
o Ex: China outperforms US in tshirt production, but US outperforms China is airplane production
Exports
World Price
EP EP
World Price
Imports
EQ
Effects of Exports
o Winners: Producers and Society
o Losers: Consumers
Effects of Imports
o Winners: Consumers and Society
o Losers: Producers
∙ Trade Restrictions
EQ
Tariff tax on a good that is imposed by the importing country when an import crosses an international boundary (works like a tax, see tax graph in Ch 6)
o P rises, QD falls, domestic prod. rises, imports fall and tariff revenue created o Effects
Losers: Consumers and Society
Winners: Producers and Government
Import Quota restriction that limits max quantity of a good that may be imported in a given period (shifts supply curve to the right)
o P rises, QD falls, imports fall, domestic prod. rises and DWL created o Effects
Losers: Consumers and Society
Winners: Producers and Importers
Other Import barriers regulatory (book, not Rush)
o Health, safety (ex: beef imports fall, with mad cow disease)
o Voluntary export restraints governmentimposed restrictions on exports
o Export subsidies government payments to producers of exports (illegal)
∙ The Case Against Protection (book, not Rush)
Trade restrictions help because...
o Helps infant industries grow (needs time to become productive enough to
compete with international companies)
o Counteracts dumping foreign firm sells exports at lower price than its cost of production to undercut domestic businesses
o Saves domestic jobs
o Allows US to compete with cheap foreign labor
o Penalizes law environmental standards
o Prevents rich countries from exploiting developing countries
o Reduces offshore outsourcing US firms buy finished goods or service from firms in other countries
∙ Why is international trade restricted?
Tariff revenue goes to government
Rent seeking lobbying for special treatment by government to create profit or divert consumer/ producer surplus away from others
Ch 8 (Lectures 22, 23 and part of 24)
∙ Consumption Possibilities (book not Rush, not very important so I'll be brief) All the things you can afford to buy
Budget Line marks boundary between combinations of goods and services that an individual can afford and can't afford to buy.
∙ Utility benefit or satisfaction a person gets from consumption of goods and services Total Utility all of the benefit a person gets from consuming all goods and services Marginal Utility change in total utility resulting from a oneunit increase in quantity consumed
o (change in TU) / (change in Q)
Diminishing Marginal Utility increases in utility get smaller as consumptions rises
Units
of
Utility
Quantity Consumed
o Consumer Equilibrium consumer allocates all available income in the way that maximizes their total utility, using the prices of such goods and services
o Marginal Analysis compares MU/dollar on each good ("bang for your buck")
Marginal Utility per dollar marginal utility that results from spending one more dollar on a good (MU / P)
UtilityMaximizing Rule
Spend all available income
Equalize MU/dollar
o Ex: Sam loves pizza and soda. Both cost $4, and his income in $20. Pizza Soda
Q
TU TU
M
U
MU
MU/
MU/PP
0
0
1
16
160
40
Pizz0
Sod
TU
2
28a
120 a
30
05
0
0+460=460
3
364
80 1
20
420+240=660
03
2
360+320=680
280+360=640
4
422
60 3
15
01
4
160+380=540
0
5
0+388=388
5
46
40
10
0
Q
0
0
1
240
240
60
2
320
80
20
cases of soda
3
360
40
10
4
380
20
5
price of the movies?
5
388
8
2
Greatest Utility
∙ Predictions using Greatest Utility Theory Ex: Movies cost $8, soda costs $4, and Lisa's income is $40. She decides to see 2 movies and buy 6
o What happens if there is a fall in the
Calculatin
g her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 6 movies and 4
cases of soda.
o What happens if there is a rise in the price of soda?
Calculating her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 6 movies
and 2 cases of soda
o What happens if there is a rise in her income?
Calculating her utility for movies and soda, Lisa will buy 8 movies
and 6 cases of soda
∙ Paradox of value (Ex: Diamonds worth more than water)
TU of water > TU of diamonds but...
MU of water < MU of diamonds
∙ Explaining Consumer Choices (Rush doesn't really mention this, but the book includes it) Behavioral Economics study of ways limits on human brain's ability to compute and implement rational decisions influence economic behavior
o Bounded rationality
o Bounded willpower
o Bounded selfinterest
o Endowment effect
Neuroeconomics study of activity of human brain when a person makes an economic decision
∙ Ordinal v. Cardinal Utility (Rush, not book)
Ordinal Utility Assumes a person can tell us if a change makes them better off, worse off or no change
Cardinal Utility Assumes we can measure a person's utility
o In this chapter (Ch 8), we use cardinal utility. A prime example of cardinal utility is insurance, which will be Ch 20, but Rush briefly explained a bit of ordinal utility, which is Ch 9
Ch 9 (Part of Lecture 26) *Don't worry it's not the whole chapter just part about ordinal utility ∙ Indifference Curves consumer is indifferent among any combination of goods on an indifference curve
Person prefers each point ( ) in relation to initial point ( ), but indifferent to ( ) Bread
Wine
Ch 20 (Lectures 2426)
∙ Insurance uses cardinal utility (see Ch 8) to study decisions under risk Risk Aversion dislike of risk
o Ex: Mark has a car. His car is worth $5,000 with no accident but only $1000 with an accident.
Wealth/Income
TU
MU (per $1,000)
0
0
$1000
150
150
$2000
250
100
$3000
300
50
$4000
330
30
$5000
350
20
Mark has a 50/50 chance of having an accident so without insurance...
Car Worth
Utility
50% No Accident
$5000
350
50% Accident
$1000
150
o Expected Wealth money value of what a person expects to own at a given point in time
EW = ($5000 x 0.5) + ($1000 x 0.5) = $3000
o Expected Utility utility value of what a person expects to own at a given point in time
EU = (350 x 0.5) + (150 x 0.5) = 250
Will Mark buy this insurance policy if the premium is $2000 and it pays $4000 with accident and $0 with no accident?
With Insurance
Car Worth
Utility
50% No Accident
$5000 + $0 (insurance pays)
$2000 (premium) = $3000
300
50% Accident
$1000 + $4000 $2000 = $3000
300
EU = (3000 x 0.5) + (3000 x 0.5) = $3000
EW = (300 x 0.5) + (300 x 0.5) = 300
*EU w/ insurance > EU w/out insurance, so Mark
will buy the policy
∙ Insurance: Supply
Ex: With a Premium of $3000, will the company sell insurance?
o Revenue per person $3000
o Expected Cost ($4000 x 0.5) + ($0 x 0.5) = $2000
o Expected Profit = (Revenue Cost) or $3000 $2000 = $1000
The company makes a profit of $1000, so yes they will sell
Increased Risk? (80% accident, 20% no accident)
o Rev $3000
o EC (4000 x .8) + (0 x 0.5) = $3600
o Expected Profit = $3000 $3600 = $600
The company would have to increase its premium to sell
∙ Private Information info about the value of an item being traded that is possessed by only buyers or sellers (asymmetric)
Adverse selection tendency for people to enter into agreements in which they use their private information to their advantage (Companies can sell policies to people who are riskier than they thought)
o Ex: Bank lends loan and knows risk that creditor may default on loan (credit/default risk)
o Signaling consumers signal ways that show their level of risk (ex: grades) o Screening sellers require private info about person to determine level of risk and sell policy appropriate to their risk level
Moral hazard tendency for people with private info to use such info to their benefit and cost of uninformed party
Lemons problem problem that in a market, it's not possible to distinguish reliable products from bad products (lemons)
o Pooling equilibrium equilibrium of market when one message is sent out to all consumers and no one can determine quality
o Separating equilibrium equilibrium of market when signaling provides full info to a previously uninformed party
Ch 9 (Lectures 26, 29 and 30)
∙ Indifference Curves consumer is indifferent among any combination of goods on an indifference curve
Person prefers each point ( ) in relation to initial point ( ), but indifferent to ( )
Bread
∙ Bowed in due to MRS
Steep slope = high
MRS
Flatter slope = low
MRS
IC2
Wine
Marginal Rate of Substitution (MRS) magnitude of slope on indifference curve (IC) (absolute value)
o Decreasing MRS MRS decreases as you move downward along an IC
∙ Budget Lines limit to a household's consumption choices, marks boundary between what they can and can't afford
Real income household's income expressed as a quantity afforded Relative price ration of price of one good to the price of another (opp cost) Think of PPF
Qw
Qb
0
20
1
16
2
12
3
8
4
4
0
5
Qb
Unaffordable
Affordable + Efficient
Ex: Income = $10 Pw = $2
Pb = $0.50
Aff. + Ineff.
Qw
Income/ Budget Constraint
o (Pw X Qw) + (Pb X Qb) = Income
Pw X Qw Pw X Qw
Pb X Qb = Inc (Pw X Qw)
Pb Pb Pb
Qb = Pw X Qw + Inc
Pb Pb
o Remember Y = MX + b?
M is slope, b is vertical intercept so...
o Qb = Pw X Qw + Inc
Pb Pb
o Y = MX + b
∙ Changing the Budget Line
What happens when price changes? (Price effect) Qb Qb
Q
b
Slope = _ Pw
Pb
Q
w
Inc Pb
What if Pw decreases What if Pb decreases?
Pw rises? Pb rises?
Qw Qw
o A fall in price rotates budget line outward
o A rise in price rotates budget line inward
What happens if income changes? (income effect)
o A fall in income shifts budget line inward
o A rise in income shifts budget line outward
∙ Degree of Substitutability (Indifference Curves)
Perfect substitutes linear graph
Perfect complements Lshaped
Subs Comps
∙ Indifference Curves with Budget Lines
Point lies on IC 2 and is therefore less desired than a point on IC 3
Budget
Line
Point is preferable to point
Point is preferable to point
Point is the best affordable point because IDC 3 is preferable to IC 2 and this point lies both in IC 3 and on the budget line
Point is unattainable because IC 4 does not touch the budget line and is unaffordable.
If price or income changes, as seen in graphs involving price and income changes, then a new budget line is created and anything outside of that budget curve is unaffordable and therefore a new best affordable point is created.
Indifference curves are also used to plot a demand curve. As price falls or rises, the demand of an individual falls or rises consequently
o This proves the Law of Demand
With ICs, we assume that
1. People want to maximize utility
2. People can tell if change helps/hurts/doesn't change
3. MRS decreases down along IC
Ch 10 (Lectures 30, 31) Rush doesn't go into detail in Ch 10, so I'll include the bare essentials
∙ Firm institution that hires factors of production and organizes those factors to produce and sell goods and services
Goal is to maximize economic profit total revenue minus total cost
o Total cost is the opportunity cost of production using resources
bought in the market
owned by the firm
Implicit Rental Rate firm's opp cost of using capital it
owns
economic depreciation fall in market value of a
firm's capital
forgone interest opportunity cost of earning interest
on funds that could have been reallocated
supplied by firm's owner
Owner might supply entrepreneurship and labor
Normal Profit average profit earned by entrepreneur
Firm's decisions
1. What to produce and what quantities
2. How to produce
3. How to organize managers and workers
4. How to market and price products
5. What to produce itself and buy from others
Constrained by
Technology method of producing good or service
Information lack for future and present
Market prices and marketing of other firms
∙ Technological and Economic Efficiency
Technological Efficiency firm produces given output using least amount of input Economic Efficiency firm produces given output at the least cost
∙ Information and Organization
Command system method of organizing production using managerial hierarchy Incentive system method of organizing production that uses a marketlike mechanism inside the firm
o PrincipleAgent Problem problem of devising compensation rules that induce an agent to act in the best interest of a principal
Solving the problem
Ownership
Incentive Pay
Longterm contracts
Types of Business Organization
o Proprietorship firm with single owner who has unlimited liability o Partnership firm with 2 or more partners who have joint unlimited liability
o Corporation firm owned by limited liability stockholders
∙ Markets and the Competitive Environment
Perfect Competition many firms, each selling an identical product, many buyers and no restrictions on the entry of new firms into the industry
Monopolistic Competition market structure with a large number of firms competing by making similar but slightly different products (product
differentiation)
Oligopoly market structure in which a small number of firms compete Monopoly one firm that produces good with no close substitutes and protected by barrier preventing new firms from entering market
o Measures of concentration used to determine extent of markets
fourfirm concentration ratio percentage of value of sales
accounted for by four largest firms in industry (0100)
0 = perfect, 100 = monopoly
HerfindohlHirschman Index square of the percentage market
share of each firm of each summed over the largest 50 firms
small = perfect, large = monopoly
o Limits of Concentration Measure
geographical scope of market
barriers to entry and firm turnover
correspondence between a market and an industry
Markets are narrower than industries
Most firms make several products
Firms switch markets
∙ Produce or Outsource?
Firm Coordination coordinating production of various goods and activities Market Coordination adjusting prices and making decisions of buyers and sellers consistent
o Firms are more efficient because
Lower transaction costs costs that arise from finding someone
with whom to do business with
Economies of scale cost of producing a unit of a good falls as
output rate increases
Economies of scope specialized resources to produce a range of
goods and services
Economies of team production individuals in a group specialize in
mutually supportive tasks
∙ Stock Market (Rush, not book)
*Highly recommended to read the stock market essays on Canvas, Rush hinted they might be on the test
Higher rates of return
Corporations
o one or more shareholders with a board of directors that oversees managers Shareholders own, executive managers run
Board of directors has to approve large decisions and give advice
Elected by shareholders
How does a company get finances?
1. Issuing stock
2. Borrowing (banks and bonds)
Terminology
o Market cap = measures business worth
o Average volume = # of shares sold and bought in one day
o EPS = earnings per share
o DIV & Yield = dividend or payment for shares
Some companies don't pay dividends
1. small or nonexistent profits
2. strong growth prospects
o Capital Gain/Loss = current price price bought at
o P/E = Price/earnings ratio (price / EPS)
Ch 11 (Lectures 32, 33 and part of 34)
∙ Production Function F(L, K) = Q
F = firm, L = labor, K = capital and Q = quantity supplied
L and K are inputs, Q is output
∙ Speed of change in L and K differ
Short run a period of time over which at least one input is fixed
Long run a period of time long enough so that all inputs can be varied
Short Run
Long Run
L
Variable
Variable
K
Fixed
Variable
Ex:
K
L
Q
MPlab
FC
V
C
TC
2
0
0
$6
$0
$6
2
1
5
5
6
4
10
2
2
1
2
7
6
8
14
2
3
1
8
6
6
12
18
2
4
2
2
4
6
16
22
2
5
2
3
1
6
20
26
Marginal Product of Labor (MPlab) = change in Q / change in L
Diminishing MPL = As L increases, eventually MPL
decreases
Fixed costs fixed inputs
Variable costs variable inputs
Total cost FC + VC = TC
∙ Measures of short run
Total product max output that a given quantity of labor can produce
o Similar to PPF in that a firm can only produce using a set amount of labor, but can't produce outside the total product curve. Only points on the curve are efficient
Marginal product increase in total product that results from a oneunit increase in the quantity of labor employed
o Law of diminishing returns As a firm uses more of a variable factor of production with a fixed quantity of the fixed factor then the MP eventually diminishes
Average product equal to TP / QL
o Average product highest when = MP
∙ Costs of short run
Total fixed, variable and total cost cost of all factors
Average fixed, variable and total cost total costs per unit of output
o AFC = FC / Q
o AVC = VC / Q
o ATC = AVC + AFC or TC / Q
Marginal cost increase in TC that results from oneunit increase in output o (change in TC) / (change in Q)
Marginal/Average relationship
o If M? > A?, then A? rises
o If M? < A?, the A? falls
Shifts in cost curves
o Technology productivity increase = MP and AP of labor increase
o Prices of factors of production price increase = firm's costs increase
∙ Long run
Production Function and diminishing returns (see above)
Longrun average cost curve relationship between the lowest attainable average total cost and output when the firm changes both production and labor (Ushaped) Economies of scale features of firm's technology that make average cost fall as output increases (LRAC curve slopes down)
Diseconomies of scale features of a firm's technology that make average total cost rise as output increases (LRAC curve slopes up)
Constant returns to scale features of firm's technology that keep ATC constant as output increases (LRAC curve slope is constant)
o Minimum efficient scale smallest output at which longrun average cost reaches its lowest level
∙ Graph (Sorry I couldn't replicate it on the computer, so I hand drew it. Hope it helps)
Ch 12 (Lectures 34 36)
∙ Perfect competition factors
lots of firms and buyers
Products produced are identical
no "barriers to entry" (legal or costbased)
o Price takers firm that cannot influence the market price because its
production is an insignificant part of the total market
o Total revenue P X Q
o Marginal Revenue (change in TR) / (change in Q)
MR
Q
P
TR
20
$5
$100
$5
21
$5
$105
$5
22
$5
$110
P Firm Market S
$5 D = MR $5
20 40 q 35 D
MC
MC < MR MC > MR
$5 D = MR
$1.20
$1 Produce where MC = MR
1 5 q*
∙ Total Profit = (P X q*) (ATC X q*)
Economic Profit occurs when the profit is above average
o P > ATC
Normal Profit is average profit
o P = ATC
Economic Loss occurs when the firm produces below average profit
o P < ATC
o Shutdown Point Rule:
If P > ATC, then the firm will stay open
If P < ATC, then the firm will close
In the short run, a firm will stay open even with a loss due to FC,
but in the long run, it will close when its FC becomes VC.
∙ Market and Firm in changing supply
When D shifts R, P rises, but in long run S shifts with more suppliers and P falls back P S S' P
P* P*
P
D
D '
Q q* q' q
Ch 13 (Lectures 37 38)
∙ Monopoly one firm that produces products with no close substitutes and insurmountable barriers to entry into its market.
Barriers to entry ownership, legal or natural
o natural monopoly economies of scale enable one firm to supply entire market at the lowest possible cost (cost based)
o legal monopoly competition and entry restricted by granting of legal rights
Demand always elastic
Market demand curve is the same as the firm's demand curve
o P > MR
P
Demand
MR Q
∙ Monopoly Profit
P
Q
TR
MR
$12
0
$0
10
1
10
$10
8
2
16
6
6
3
18
2
4
4
16
2
2
5
10
6
Rules for max profit are same for perfectly competitive firms and monopolies P MC
P*
D
Q* MR Q
Short run and long run
o Perfectly competitive = short run economic profit becomes normal profit in the long run as firms enter marker
o Monopoly = short run economic profit becomes long run economic profit because barriers to entry prevent other firms from entering
Monopolies create a DWL
o P monopoly > P perf. comp.
o QM > PPC
∙ Price discrimination selling at different prices
Types
1. same unit to different people at different prices (ex: student discount)
2. different units at different prices (ex: 1st and 2nd ice cream scoop)
Conditions
1. Two or more groups with different demands
2. firm must be able to identify groups
3. firm must be able to prevent resale of product
Perfect price discrimination occurs if a firm can sell each unit of output for highest price someone is willing to pay for it
∙ Monopoly Regulation
Regulation/ deregulation
o marginal cost pricing rule
o average cost pricing rule
o rate of return regulation
o price cap regulation
Theories
o Social Interest political and regulatory process relentlessly seeks out inefficiency and introduces regulation that eliminates DWL and allocates resources efficiently o Capture regulation serves the selfinterest of the producer, who captures the economic profit
Ch 14 (Lecture 40)
∙ Monopolistic competition
large # of firms
Product Differentiation products slightly different
Compete on quality, price and marketing
firms can enter and exit freely
MC
P ATC MC
P* Profit ATC
D D
Q* MR Q MR Q
Short Run = Eco Profit Long Run = Normal profit
Mono. comp. firms don't produce at the ATC min, but perf. comp firms do o Efficient Scale Q at which ATC is minimum
excess capacity produce less then efficient scale
markup amount by which P > MC
∙ Advertising and produce development
signals buyers action to inform people
o brand names
Ch 15 (Lectures 4043)
∙ Oligopoly
Natural or legal barriers to entry, but not insurmountable
small number of firms compete (ex: AT&T and Verizon)
o firms are interdependent
o cartel group of firms acting together to limit output and raise price and profit Duopoly two firms compete
Game theory strategic behaviors based on collusive agreement (developed by John Nash)
Elements of a game
o Rules
o Strategies
o Payoff
Payoff Matrix
Firm A
Firm B
Comply
Cheat
Comply
A= $200
B= $200
A= $300
B= $50
Cheat
A= $50
B= $300
A= $0
B= $0
o Nash Equilibrium each player uses his or her best strategy taking as given the competitor's
strategy
Firm A
B complies = cheat
B cheats = cheat
Firm B
A complies = cheat
A cheats = cheat
Dominant Strategy same strategy every time
Real life is a repeated game
o Cooperative equilibrium players make and share the monopoly profit
o Titfortat strategy Firm A does what Firm B did in the last game
∙ Game of Chicken
Similar to Payoff Matrix, except loss is greatest when both comply, and least when only one complies and the other cheats
o No dominant strategy
∙ Antitrust laws
Sherman Act (1890) outlawed "contract in restraint of trade" and made "every person who shall monopolize guilty of felony".
o Resale Price Maintenance supplier tells retailer minimum price of product
Clayton Act (1914) Specific acts are prohibited if "lessen competition or tend to create monopoly".
o Price discrimination
o Exclusive dealings
o Interlocking directorates
o Tying contracts sell one product only with purchase of another product
o Predatory pricing low price drives competitors outthen high price
o acquisition of competitor's shares
Ex: Walmart tries to buy Target
Formulas to Remember
∙ Totals
TC = FC + VC
TC = ATC X Q
FC = AFC X Q
VC = AVC X Q
∙ Averages
ATC = AFC + AVC
ATC = TC / Q
AFC = FC / Q
AVC = VC / Q
∙ Marginals
MP labor = change Q / change C
MC = change TC / change Q
MR = change TR / change Q
∙ Stock Market
P.E. Ratio = Price/ earnings per share
Dividend yield = DIV / Price X 100
∙ Facts
If Q = 0, then VC = $0
If Q = 0, then TC = FC
Ch 16 (Lectures 44, 4750)
∙ Public choices decision that has consequences for many people and perhaps for an entire society
Decision makers
o voters max utility
o special interest groups
o politicians reelection
o bureaucrats size of bureacuracy
Political equilibrium choices of all voters, firms, politicians and bureaucrats are all compatible and no group can see a way of improving its position
∙ Public goods
Excludable possible to prevent someone from enjoying its benefits
Nonexcludable impossible from preventing someone from benefitting Rival one person's use decreases use for another
Nonrival one person's use does not decrease use for another
o Private good rival and excludable
o Public good nonrival and nonexcluable
o Common resource rival and nonexcludable
Quota limit on quantity consumed
o Natural monopoly good nonrival and excludable
Free rider problem economy provides an inefficiently small Q of public good Principle of minimum differentiation tendency for competitors to make themselves similar to appeal to max number of clients/voters
o inefficiency
Tragedy of the commons overuse of common resource that arises when users have no incentive to conserve it and use it sustainably
o Ex: overfishing
o MSC = MPC + MEC
∙ Healthcare
market failure without intervention
different approaches
o universal coverage, single payer (gov pays all)
o private government insurance
o subsidized private insurance (ex: Obamacare)
o vouchers token used to buy only the item specified
Ch 17 (Lectures 44, 4750 )
∙ Externalities (negative = cost, positive = benefit)
External cost when production or consumption of a good imposes a cost on someone who is not the producer or consumer
o Ex: Pollution
External benefit when production or consumption of a good creates a benefit for someone who is not the producer or consumer of the good
o education, flu vaccine
Market failure an unregulated market fails to produce the efficient quantity o DWL occurs
P S = MC (=) MSC
External cost
External benefit
D = MB (=) MSB
QEQ (=) Qeff Q
MSC
DWL S = MC
Qeff Qeq D = MB = MSB
MC
<
MSC
Labor
Labor
Capital
Capital
Ex: cow
Ex: cow
Tax
Water pollution
Marginal Private cost cost of producing an additional unit (falls on producer) Marginal external cost cost of producing an additional unit (falls on other people) Fixing the cost of externalities
o Establish property rights
Abatement technology reduces or prevents pollution
Produce less and pollute less
o Mandate clean technology (ex: Clean Air Act of 1970)
o Tax or cap and price pollution
Pigovian taxes tax = external cost
capandtrade upper limit on pollution (set on individual firms)
Marketable permit each firm receives permit for one unit of
external cost which they can sell and buy between other
firms with no limits
Government intervention
o Regulation
o Tax
o Coase Theorem determines cause of externalities, which is the absence of property rights
If transaction costs low and property rights assigned, then private market is efficient and no externalities
Achieving an Efficient Outcome
o Property rights
o Production quotas (individual firms have limits)
o Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) production limit assigned to an individual who can sell their ITQ to someone else
ex: fishermen
Marginal private benefit benefit of producing an additional unit (consumer receives)
Marginal external benefit benefit of producing an additional unit (received by others besides consumer)
o Ex: education
Fixing external benefits
o public production public authority produces
o subsidy payment to private producers by government
o voucher token given to households by government to buy specified goods most advantageous
Ex: food stamps
Ch 18 (Lectures 50 52)
∙ Factor Markets
Land supply is perfectly inelastic
o nonrenewable natural resources
Entrepreneurship not a market but a residual claimant
Capital returns accrue over time
Labor human resources, preferences matter
∙ Demand for factor
Derived demand derived from demand for goods and services that labor produces Value of marginal product value to a form of using one more factor of production o derives firm's demand curve for labor
Shifts
price of firm's outputs
price of substitute/ complement
Technology
Movement caused by change in wage rate
∙ Labor Market
Individual's curve leisure and labor supply
o reservation wage min wage willing to work
o backwardbending supply curve at a certain income level, a person would rather have more leisure time and work less hours
o Substitution effect higher wage is more incentive to work
o Income effect higher wage means higher income
S > I when inc in wage = inc in LS
I > S when inc in wage = dec in LS
Trends now
o rising wages and increased wage inequality
Wage differences
o preferences
o human capital (education and experience)
o discrimination
∙ Labor unions
decrease supply of labor (strikes)
increase labor demand
o increase value of MP
o lobby for import restrictions
o minimum wage laws
o restrictive immigration laws
Monopsony one employer in a market
o min wage increases both wage rate and employment
∙ Capital and Natural Resource markets
Capital rental market lower rental rate means a greater quantity supplied Land rental market lower rental rate means greater quantity supplied Natural nonrenewable resource markets
o Ex: oil
o Hotelling principle price is expected to rise at rate equal to interest rate Ch 19 (Lectures 52 53)
∙ Income
money v market income
Distribution
o Median income is $53,657
o Top 5% is $206,568
o Bottom 10% is $12,276
o Richest 25% has 90.4% of wealth
Lorenz Curve
o Used to measure distribution of income
o plots cumulative % of income against cumulative % of households
o Can also be used to see how income distribution in a country has changed over time
Line of Equality
Cumul. % Inc
Lorenz Curve
(More unequal)
Lorenz Curve (more equal) Cumul. % HH
Wealth value of things owned at a given point in time
o Income is a more reliable source of measurement
Gini ratio area between Lorenz curve and line of equality divided by entire area beneath line of equality
o 0 = completely equally distributed
o 1 = income extremely unequally distributed
o U.S. ratio is 0.47, world is 0.61
o increased in recent years
Poverty household's income is too low to be able to buy quantities of food, shelter and clothing necessary.
o U.S. level at $23,492 (46 million Americans)
o Poverty influences include race, age, work experience, physical ability and household status
o Examples: Finland and Sweden are relatively equal for income distribution while Brazil and South America are vastly unequal
Sources
o Human capital
value of marginal product for some workers > others
Technology replaces lowskilled workers
globalization
o Discrimination
Specialization in the household
race
o Negative wealth or inherited wealth
Redistribution
o Income taxes progressive
Progressive, proportional and regressive taxes
o Income maintenance
Social security
Unemployment compensation
Welfare
Ex: food stamps and TANF
Subsidizations for student tuition, etc.
o Big tradeoff tradeoff between equity and efficiency when it comes to income redistribution
$1 in tax does not mean $1 to help someone in poverty