In Exercises 110, evaluate the expression without using a calculator.123 323

Lecture 1 January 27, 2016 Week 1 Wednesday  Overview of Syllabus th  Introduction to the Historiography of Science in the 18 Century o Traditional appraisals:  Relatively dull interlude between 16 ­17 and 19 centuries  “Consolidation “ of scientific revolution  Not requiring a lot of originality of effort, not worthy of special attention or effort o More recent accounts  Integration of scientific knowledge into western culture as a major development  Requires special effort to adopt and accept th  Due to emergence of culture of 18 century  Original scientific contributions  Contributions in field of chemistry  Institutional and organizational change  Spread of national academies of sciences, modeled after French academies  Relations between science and the enlightenment  Enlightenment characterized by strong critical thinking  Neglect of tradition in 18 century is a paradox th  Science in the 18 century was not a specialized activity in the way that it became after the 19 century  “Science” is an anachronistic term, more like natural philosophy o [Quotation]  Science in the 19 Century o Major changes in various aspects of the scientific enterprise  New theories in physics and biology  Discipline formation  Research university adopted vs. national academies of the th 18 century  A second scientific revolution  Not exactly a period of change or transformation o “Natural philosophy” becomes “Science”  [Quotation]  Whewell introduced the term “scientist”  Science is becoming a more specialized activity than natural philosophy  Natural Philosophy—a system of concepts mediating between facts and philosophy; Religious aspect, nature and nature’s gods o Relation to (imperial) state and industry  Imperialism and struggle for colonies in the 18 century  Science is relied onto to administrate the large empires  Provides access to new resources during this time as well  Electrical and chemical industry—organic chemistry, electrical engineering, physics, etc. o National competition  Nationalism played a huge role in attributing credit to new discoveries  Competition between European countries in schools of science  Certain amount of prestige attached to this th  20 Century Science o Paradox: science of 20 century has remain understudied despite its quantitative and qualitative importance  Technically demanding (for both historians and readers) th  George Sarton—wrote an essay about the history of 20 century science, mastering contents of science is a problem of historians when trying to write about this century  Problems of sources  Scientific research classified, not publicly available (nuclear physics)  Problem of proximity  How can it be applied to other fields  Large Hadron Collider, CERN (Geneva)—huge amount of contributors  Themes of the course o Episodes in the development of science  Chemical revolution of the late 18 century (characterized by the discovery of molecular oxygen)  Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and the development of social Darwinism and social science  Institutional revolution of physics and chemistry in the 19 century  New physics of the early 20 century (Einstein, Bohr, etc.)  Mendelian genetics o Science in history  Cultural movements: Enlightenment, Romanticism  Economy: e.g. industrial revolution, industrial research  Politics and the state: empire and war o Overarching questions  Tension between pursuit of scientific knowledge for its own sake and development of applications  Science and technology ever more closely intertwined  Term, “technoscience”  How does organization of science affect knowledge production  Geographical shift from Europe to the United States