?The metabolism of triacylglycerols and carbohydrates is influenced by the hormones

What is the role of bile salts in lipid digestion?

How are insoluble triacylglycerols transported to the tissues and fat cells?

When are fats released from fat stores?

What happens to the glycerol produced from the hydrolysis of triacylglycerols in adipose tissues?

How is glycerol converted to an intermediate of glycolysis?

How can glycerol be used to synthesize glucose?

What enzyme would be defective?

Why would a person with this enzyme deficiency have high blood glycerol levels?

Where in the cell is a fatty acid activated?

What is the function of carnitine in the \(\beta\) oxidation of fatty acids? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

What coenzymes are required for \(\beta\) oxidation? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

When does an isomerization occur during the \(\beta\) oxidation of a fatty acid? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

In each of the following acyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) molecules, identify the \(\beta-\text { carbon }\): Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: CoA beta-carbon

In each of the following acyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) molecules, identify the \(\beta-\text { carbon }\): Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: CoA betam-carbon

Draw the condensed structural or line-angle formula for the product(s) when each of the following undergoes the indicated reaction:

Draw the condensed structural or line-angle formula for the product(s) when each of the following undergoes the indicated reaction:

Caprylic acid (octanoic acid) is a saturated \(C_{8}\) fatty acid found in coconut and palm oil as well as cow, goat, and human milk. a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the activated form of caprylic acid. b. Indicate the \(\alpha-\) and \(\beta-\text { carbon }\) atoms in caprylic acid. c. State the number of \(\beta\) oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of caprylic acid. d. State the number of acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) units obtained from the complete oxidation of caprylic acid. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: C_8 alpha- beta-carbon beta CoA

Lignoceric acid is a saturated \(C_{24}\) fatty acid found in small amounts in peanut oil. a. Draw the line-angle formula for the activated form of lignoceric acid. b. Indicate the \(\alpha-\) and \(\beta-\text { carbon }\) atoms in lignoceric acid. c. State the number of \(\beta\) oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid. d. State the number of acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) units obtained from the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: C_8 alpha- beta-carbon beta CoA

Why is the energy of fatty acid activation from \(A T P\) to \(A M P\) considered the same as the hydrolysis of \(2 A T P \rightarrow 2 A D P\)? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: ATP AMP 2 ATP rightarrow 2 ADP

What is the number of \(A T P\) molecules obtained from each acetyl \(C O A\) in the citric acid cycle? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: ATP CoA

Behenic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in peanut and canola oils. Answer each of the following (a to c) for behenic acid: a. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl \(\mathrm{COA}\) units are produced? c. How many \(A T P\) can be generated from the \(\beta\) oxidation of behenic acid? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta CoA ATP beta

Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid found in animal products. Answer each of the following (a to c) for stearic acid: a. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl \(\mathrm{COA}\) units are produced? c. How many \(A T P\) can be generated from the \(\beta\) oxidation of stearic acid? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta CoA ATP beta

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid common in animal and vegetable oils. Answer each of the following (a to c) for oleic acid: a. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl \(\mathrm{COA}\) units are produced? c. How many \(A T P\) can be generated from the \(\beta\) oxidation of oleic acid? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta CoA ATP beta

Palmitoleic acid is a monounsaturated fatty acid common in animal and vegetable oils. Answer each of the following (a to c) for palmitoleic acid: a. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) units are produced ? c. How many \(A T P\) can be generated from the \(\beta\) oxidation of palmitoleic acid? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta CoA ATP beta

Jamaican vomiting sickness is caused by eating the unripe ackee fruit, which contains the protoxin hypoglycin \(A\). How does hypoglycin \(A\) inhibit \(\beta\) oxidation (see Chemistry Link to Health: Jamaican Vomiting Sickness)? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: A A beta

Based on the symptoms caused by eating the unripe ackee fruit, why do you think the protoxin that causes Jamaican vomiting sickness was named hypoglycin A (see Chemistry Link to Health: Jamaican Vomiting Sickness)?

What is ketogenesis?

If a person were fasting, why would they have high levels of acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\)? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: CoA

What type of reaction converts acetoacetate to 3-hydroxybutyrate?

How is acetone formed from acetoacetate?

Diabetics often display signs of ketoacidosis if insulin levels are not maintained. What is ketoacidosis (see Chemistry Link to Health: Diabetes and Ketone Bodies)?

Why do diabetics produce high levels of ketone bodies (see Chemistry Link to Health: Diabetes and Ketone Bodies)?

Where does fatty acid synthesis occur in the cell?

What compound is involved in the activation of acyl compounds in fatty acid synthesis?

What are the starting materials for fatty acid synthesis?

What is the function of malonyl ACP in fatty acid synthesis?

Identify the reaction (a to c) catalyzed by each of the following enzymes (1 to 3): 1. acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) carboxylase 2. acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) transacylase 3. malonyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) transacylase a. converts malonyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) to malonyl \(A C P\) b. combines acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) with bicarbonate to give malonyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) c. converts acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) to acetyl \(A C P\) Equation Transcription: ________________ Text Transcription: CoA CoA CoA CoA CoA ACP CoA CoA CoA ACP

Identify the reaction (a to d) catalyzed by each of the following enzymes (1 to 4): 1. 3-ketoacyl \(A C P\) synthase 2. 3-ketoacyl \(A C P\) reductase 3. 3-hydroxyacyl \(A C P\) dehydrase 4. enoyl \(A C P\) reductase a. catalyzes the dehydration of an alcohol b. converts a carbon-carbon double bond to a carbon-carbon single bond c. combines a two-carbon acetyl group with a three-carbon acyl group accompanied by the loss of \(C O_{2}\) d. reduces a keto group to a hydroxyl group Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: ACP ACP ACP ACP CO_2

Determine the number of each of the following components involved in the synthesis of one molecule of capric acid, a \(C_{10}\) fatty acid: a. \(\mathrm{HCO}_{3}\) b. \(A T P\) c. acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) d. malonyl \(A C P\) e. \(N A D P H\) f. \(\mathrm{CO}_{2}\) removed Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: C_10 HCO_3 ATP CoA ACP NADPH CO_2

Determine the number of each of the following components involved in the synthesis of one molecule of myristic acid, a \(C_{14}\) fatty acid: a. \(\mathrm{HCO}_{3}\) b. \(A T P\) c. acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) d. malonyl \(A C P\) e. \(N A D P H\) f. \(\mathrm{CO}_{2}\) removed Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: C_10 HCO_3 ATP CoA ACP NADPH CO_2

Triclosan, which is used in antiseptic hand washes and lotions to inhibit the growth of bacteria, is an inhibitor of enoyl ACP reductase. a. What reaction in fatty acid synthesis is catalyzed by enoyl ACP reductase? b. If fatty acid synthesis is required for the formation of bacterial membranes, why is triclosan used to control the growth of bacteria?

Researchers have synthesized a compound from biotin called \(C A B I\) that inhibits the catalytic activity of acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) carboxylase in the cytosol. Mice without acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) carboxylase activity were found to lose weight even though they ate more food. a. What reaction in fatty acid synthesis is catalyzed by acetyl \(\mathrm{CoA}\) carboxylase? b. How might \(C A B I\) be useful in reducing obesity? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: CABI CoA CoA CoA CABI

Where do dietary proteins undergo digestion in the body?

What is meant by protein turnover?

What are some nitrogen-containing compounds that need amino acids for their synthesis?

What is the fate of the amino acids obtained from a high-protein diet?

What are the reactants and products in transamination reactions?

What types of enzymes catalyze transamination reactions?

Draw the condensed structural formula for the \(\alpha\)-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha

Draw the condensed structural formula for the \(\alpha\)-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha

Write the equation, using condensed structural formulas, for the oxidative deamination of glutamate.

How do all \(20\) amino acids produce ammonium ions in oxidative deamination? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: 20

Draw the condensed structural formula for urea.

Draw the condensed structural formula for carbamoyl phosphate.

What is the source of carbon in urea?

How much ATP energy is required to drive one turn of the urea cycle?

Why does the body convert \(\mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}\) to urea? Equation Transcription: NH4+ Text Transcription: NH_4^+

Why would a person on a high-protein diet be instructed to drink large quantities of water?

In addition to ammonia, what intermediate of the urea cycle would be elevated if an infant has a deficiency of argininosuccinate synthetase?

In addition to ammonia, what intermediate of the urea cycle would be elevated if an infant has a deficiency of argininosuccinate lyase?

What is the function of a glucogenic amino acid?

What is the function of a ketogenic amino acid?

What component of the citric acid cycle can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. alanine b. asparagine c. valine d. glutamine

What component of the citric acid cycle can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. leucine b. threonine c. cysteine d. arginine

What do we call the amino acids that humans can synthesize?

How do humans obtain the amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the body?

How is glutamate converted to glutamine?

What amino acid can be converted into the amino acid tyrosine?

What does the abbreviation PKU represent (see Chemistry Link to Health: Phenylketonuria)?

How is PKU treated (see Chemistry Link to Health: Phenylketonuria)?

Draw the condensed structural formulas for the products of the reaction of alanine and \(\alpha\)-ketoglutarate, which is catalyzed by alanine transaminase (ALT). Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha

Draw the condensed structural formulas for the products of the reaction of aspartate and \(\alpha\)-ketoglutarate, which is catalyzed by aspartate transaminase (AST). Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha

Lauric acid \((12:0)\) is a fatty acid found in coconut oil. a. Draw the line-angle formula for the activated form of lauric acid. b. Indicate the \(\alpha\)- and \(\beta\)-carbon atoms in the acyl molecule. c. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed for the complete oxidation of lauric acid? d. How many acetyl CoA units are produced from the complete oxidation of lauric acid? e. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete \(\beta\) oxidation of lauric acid by completing the following: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: (12:0) alpha beta

Arachidic acid (20:0) is a fatty acid found in peanut and fish oils. a. Draw the line-angle formula for the activated form of arachidic acid. b. Indicate the \(\alpha\)- and \(\beta\)-carbon atoms in the acyl molecule. c. How many cycles of \(\beta\) oxidation are needed for the complete oxidation of arachidic acid? d. How many acetyl CoA units are produced from the complete oxidation of arachidic acid? e. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete \(\beta\) oxidation of arachidic acid by completing the following: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: (20:0) alpha beta

How are dietary triacylglycerols digested?

What is a chylomicron?

Why are the fats in the adipose tissues of the body considered the major form of stored energy?

How are fatty acids obtained from stored fats?

Why doesn't the brain utilize fatty acids for energy?

Why don't red blood cells utilize fatty acids for energy?

A triacylglycerol is hydrolyzed in the fat cells of adipose tissues, and the fatty acid is transported to the liver. a. What happens to the glycerol? b. Where in the liver cells is the fatty acid activated for \(\beta\) oxidation? c. What is the energy cost for activation of the fatty acid? d. What is the purpose of activating fatty acids? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

Consider the \(\beta\) oxidation of a saturated fatty acid. a. What is the activated form of the fatty acid? b. Why is this oxidation called \(\beta\) oxidation? c. Which reactions in the fatty acid cycle require coenzymes? d. What is the yield in ATP for one cycle of \(\beta\) oxidation? Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

Identify each of the following as involved in \(\beta\) oxidation or in fatty acid synthesis: a. \(\text { NAD }^{+}\) b. occurs in the mitochondrial matrix c. malonyl ACP d. cleavage of a two-carbon acetyl group e. acyl carrier protein f. Carboxylase Equation Transcription: NAD+ Text Transcription: Beta NAD^+

Identify each of the following as involved in \(\beta\) oxidation or in fatty acid synthesis: a. NADPH b. takes place in the cytosol c. FAD d. oxidation of a hydroxyl group e. coenzyme A f. hydration of a double bond Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: beta

The metabolism of triacylglycerols and carbohydrates is influenced by the hormones insulin and glucagon. Indicate the results of each of the following as stimulating fatty acid oxidation or fatty acid synthesis: a. high blood glucose b. secretion of glucagon

The metabolism of triacylglycerols and carbohydrates is influenced by the hormones insulin and glucagon. Indicate the results of each of the following as stimulating fatty acid oxidation or fatty acid synthesis: a. low blood glucose b. secretion of insulin

Why is ammonium ion that is produced in the liver converted immediately to urea?

What compound is regenerated to repeat the urea cycle?

Indicate the reactant in the urea cycle that reacts with each of the following compounds: a. aspartate b. ornithine

Indicate the products of the urea cycle that use each of the following compounds: a. arginine b. argininosuccinate

Which citric acid cycle intermediate can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. serine b. lysine c. methionine d. glutamate

Which citric acid cycle intermediate can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. glycine b. isoleucine c. histidine d. phenylalanine

How much ATP can be produced from the degradation of serine?

Calculate the total ATP produced in the complete oxidation of caproic acid, \(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{2}\), and compare it with the total ATP produced from the oxidation of glucose, \(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{6}\). Equation Transcription: C6H12O2 C6H12O6 Text Transcription: C_6H_12O_2 C_6H_12O_6

Identify each of the following reactions in the \(\beta\) oxidation of palmitic acid, a \(\mathrm{C}_{16}\) fatty acid, as activation, transport into mitochondria, first oxidation, hydration, second oxidation, or cleavage: a. Palmitoyl CoA and FAD form \(\alpha\),\(\beta\)-unsaturated palmitoyl CoA and \(\mathrm{FADH}_{2}\) b. \(3\)-Ketopalmitoyl CoA forms myristoyl CoA and acetyl CoA. c. Palmitic acid, HS?CoA, and ATP form palmitoyl CoA Equation Transcription: C16 FADH2 Text Transcription: Beta C_16 Alpha FADH_2 3

Identify each of the following reactions in the \(\beta\) oxidation of palmitic acid, a \(C_{16}\) fatty acid, as activation, transport into mitochondria, first oxidation, hydration, second oxidation, or cleavage: a. \(\alpha\),\(\beta\)-Unsaturated palmitoyl CoA and \(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\) form \(3\)-hydroxypalmitoyl CoA. b. \(3\)-Hydroxypalmitoyl CoA and NAD+ form \(3\)-ketopalmitoyl CoA and \(\mathrm{NADH}+\mathrm{H}^{+}\) c. Palmitoyl CoA condenses with carnitine to form palmitoyl carnitine. Equation Transcription: C16 H2O NAD+ NADH + H+ Text Transcription: beta C_16 alpha H_2 O 3 NAD^+ NADH + H^+

Draw the condensed structural formula for and give the name of the amino acid formed when the following \(\alpha \)-keto acids undergo transamination with glutamate: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha

Draw the condensed structural formula for and give the name of the amino acid formed when the following \(\alpha \)-keto acids undergo transamination with glutamate: Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: alpha