?Explain why most of the bottom water of the oceans forms in the North Atlantic and near

Why are temperature swings smaller over coastal lands than inland?

What were the main components of Earth’s first atmosphere? What happened to this atmosphere?

Earth’s present atmosphere probably developed from gases that escaped from its interior during volcanic eruptions. What three principal atmospheric gases did these eruptions produce?

Explain the importance of photosynthesis in the evolution of the atmosphere.

Name four features of the ocean floor that can be found between two continents.

The salinity of the ocean varies from one place to another. What two factors lead to an increase in salinity? What two factors lead to a decrease in salinity?

Why do waves become taller as they enter shallow water?

What is wave refraction? Why does it occur in ocean waves?

Why is a barrier island’s lagoon usually a quiet environment?

Why are all tides highest at the time of a full or new Moon?

When do the highest high tides occur: during a spring tide or during a neap tide?

What elements make up today’s atmosphere?

Why doesn’t gravity flatten the atmosphere against Earth’s surface?

In which atmospheric layer does all our weather occur?

Does temperature increase or decrease as one moves upward in the troposphere? As one moves upward in the stratosphere?

What does the angle at which sunlight strikes Earth have to do with the temperate and polar regions?

What does Earth’s tilt have to do with the change of seasons?

Why are the hours of daylight equal all around the world on the two equinoxes?

How does radiation emitted from Earth differ from radiation emitted by the Sun?

How is the atmosphere near Earth’s surface heated from below?

What is the underlying cause of air motion?

What causes pressure differences to arise, and hence causes the wind to blow?

In what direction does Earth spin: west to east or east to west?

What does the Coriolis force do to winds? To ocean currents?

How does the Coriolis force determine the general path of air circulation?

Why are most of the world’s deserts found in the area known as the horse latitudes?

What are the trade winds?

What factors set surface ocean currents in motion?

Explain the circulation pattern of the Gulf Stream.

For an easy-to-make model of air pressure, fill a glass with water. Place a piece of cardboard over the top of the glass and hold the cardboard in place with one hand as you turn the glass upside down. Make sure the cardboard does not bend. Now remove your hand from the cardboard. What happens? Does the cardboard fall off and the water flow out? No, the cardboard remains on the glass. Why? The air pressure pushing up on the cardboard is greater than the weight of the water pushing down. For fun, turn the cup sideways, and then turn it all around. The cardboard continues to stick!

The following terms are used to describe a water wave: Crest—the highest elevation above the undisturbed sea surface. Trough—the lowest depression below the undisturbed sea surface. Wavelength—the distance between two successive crests or two successive troughs. Wave height—the vertical distance from the top of the crest to the bottom of the trough. Amplitude— the distance from either the crest or the trough to the undisturbed water level; one-half the wave height. Period—the time required for two successive crests (or troughs) to pass a given point. Label the parts of a wave on the following sketch.

For Exercises 33 and 34, refer to “Figuring Physical Science: Dense as Air” on page 675. 33. What is the mass in kilograms of the air in an “empty” nonpressurized scuba tank that has an internal volume of 0.0100 \(\mathrm{m}^{3}\)? Text Transcription: m^3

For Exercises 33 and 34, refer to “Figuring Physical Science: Dense as Air” on page 675. 33. What is the mass in kilograms of the air in a scuba tank that has an internal volume of 0.0100 \(\mathrm{m}^{3}\) and is pressurized so that the density of the air in the tank is 240 kg/\(\mathrm{m}^{3}\)? Text Transcription: m^3

Going from continental land toward the deep ocean basin, place these parts of the continental margin in order: (a) slope, (b) shelf, (c) rise, (d) mid-ocean ridge.

Rising through Earth’s atmospheric layers, starting from ground level, place Earth’s atmospheric layers in order: (a) exosphere, (b) stratosphere, (c) troposphere, (d) thermosphere.

Beginning with the underlying cause, rank the factors that contribute to global air circulation from most to least significant: (a) pressure differences, (b) temperature differences, (c) Coriolis force, (d) frictional force.

From the equator to the poles, place the following wind bands in order: (a) trade winds, (b) horse latitudes, (c) doldrums, (d) westerlies.

Deep-water ocean currents transport water and heat all over the planet. Starting from the where the conveyor belt originates, place the following areas in the geographic sequence of the current’s path: (a) Antarctica, (b) Pacific Ocean, (c) North Atlantic.

How does the ocean influence weather on land?

Considering that our atmosphere developed as a result of volcanic eruptions, why aren’t there higher traces of atmospheric carbon dioxide, one of the principal volcanic gases?

Why are temperature fluctuations greater over land than over water? Explain.

If it is winter and January in Chicago, what are the corresponding season and month in Sydney, Australia?

The oceans are composed of salt water, yet evaporation over the ocean surface results in clouds that produce fresh-water precipitation. Why is there no salt?

The Mediterranean Sea is very salty. What can you say about the relative rates of evaporation and precipitation over the Mediterranean?

What happens to the salinity of seawater when evaporation at the ocean surface exceeds precipitation? When precipitation exceeds evaporation? Defend your answer.

Why is there more concern about melting polar ice caps than about melting icebergs?

Because seawater does not freeze easily, sea ice never gets very thick. Where, then, do large icebergs originate?

As a volume of seawater freezes, the salinity of the surrounding water increases. Explain.

Why are headlands prime areas for erosion?

Carbonate rocks are formed mainly in marine environments. Why do we find abundant carbonate deposits on continental land?

Suppose a breakwater is built offshore and perpendicular to the shore. How will this structure affect the longshore current and its transport of sand? Defend your answer.

As waves approach shallow water, those with longer wavelengths slow down before those with shorter wavelengths do. Why?

Why is the sand of some beaches composed of small pieces of seashells?

Would ocean tides exist if the gravitational pull of the Moon (and Sun) were somehow equal on all parts of the world? Explain.

Most people today know that the ocean tides are caused principally by the gravitational influence of the Moon. And most people therefore think that the gravitational pull of the Moon on Earth is greater than the gravitational pull of the Sun on Earth. What do you think?

Why aren’t high ocean tides exactly 12 hours apart?

When the ocean tide is unusually high, is the following low tide unusually low? Defend your answer in terms of “conservation of water.” (If you slosh water in a tub so it is extra deep at one end, is the other end extra shallow?)

With respect to spring and neap ocean tides, when are the lowest tides? That is, when is the tide best for digging clams?

Why is the thermosphere so much hotter than the mesosphere?

What is the source of the ions that give the ionosphere its name?

If a gas fills all the space available to it, why doesn’t the atmosphere go off into space?

Explain why your ears pop when you ascend to higher altitudes.

What causes the fiery displays of light called the auroras?

Why is it important that mountain climbers wear sunglasses and apply sunblock even when the temperature is below freezing?

How does the density of air in a deep mine compare with the density of air at sea level? Defend your answer.

Pretend you have a magic beanstalk. As you climb it upward to about 10 kilometers, what happens to air pressure and air temperature?

How do the wavelengths of radiant energy vary with the temperature of the radiating source? How does this affect solar and terrestrial radiation?

How is global warming affected by the relative transparencies of the atmosphere to long-wavelength and shortwavelength electromagnetic radiation?

Earth is closest to the Sun in January, but January is cold in the Northern Hemisphere. Why?

If the composition of the atmosphere were changed so more terrestrial radiation could escape, what effect would this have on Earth’s average temperature? How about if the atmosphere let less terrestrial radiation escape?

How do equatorial regions and polar regions on Earth compare in terms of the number of hours of sunlight in a year? Why are polar regions so much colder?

How do scientists determine greenhouse gas levels and temperature levels for the geologic past?

In tropical regions, solar energy exceeds terrestrial radiation. What effect does this have on the salinity of oceans in tropical regions?

As the world’s population increases, the amount of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel combustion also increases. Yet the amount of carbon dioxide emitted is greater than the amount found in the atmosphere. Where is the likely repository of excess atmospheric carbon dioxide?

If there were no water on Earth’s surface, would weather occur? Defend your answer.

If Earth were not spinning, in what direction would the surface winds blow where you live? In what direction do surface winds blow on Earth at 15° S latitude, and why?

Temperature and pressure are directly proportional to each other. This means that as the temperature decreases, the pressure also decreases; and as the temperature increases, the pressure increases. If warm air rises, does this mean the air moves to a region of higher pressure? Explain.

Why does warm air rise and cool air sink?

Which air is less dense—cool air or warm air? Explain.

Wind always moves from high pressure to lower pressure. In Figure 24.25b, why does the surface wind move from city 1 to city 2?

What causes air movement? What is the primary force that causes all winds?

What role does the Sun play in the circulation of ocean currents?

Why do the temperate zones have unpredictable weather?

Relate the jet stream to upper-air circulation. How does this circulation pattern affect airline schedules from New York to San Francisco and the return trip to New York?

What are the jet streams, and how do they form?

How does the Coriolis force influence the movement of surface waters?

Which receive more solar energy over the course of a year: tropical regions or temperate regions? How does this affect ocean salinity?

What is the characteristic climate of the doldrums, and why does it occur?

What is the relationship between global atmospheric circulation and ocean currents? Relate oceanic gyres to patterns of subtropical high pressure.

What happens to the water level in a glass of water when a floating ice cube in the glass melts? Similarly, what happens to the water level in the Great Lakes when floating chunks of ice melt?

What effect does the formation of sea ice in polar regions have on the density of seawater? Explain.

Explain why most of the bottom water of the oceans forms in the North Atlantic and near Antarctica.

Water denser than surrounding water sinks. With respect to the densities of deeper water, how far does it sink?

How does the density of seawater vary with changes in temperature? How does density change with salinity?

During a heavy storm, which will have a more protected shore: a gently sloping beach or a steep and narrow beach?

Why do wind-generated waves change direction when they reach shallow water?

At the surface, does an Ekman spiral look like a whirlpool or a gyre?

If a north wind blows across the sea surface, in what direction does the surface current flow in the Northern Hemisphere? In the Southern Hemisphere?

How would air circulate in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres if there were no land and Earth did not rotate?

Why are eastbound aircraft flights usually faster than westbound flights?