For cranial ultrasound, why is it advantageous to use

When sound travels from air into water, does the frequency of the wave change? The speed? The wavelength? Explain your reasoning.

The hero of a western movie listens for an oncoming train by putting his ear to the track. Why does this method give an earlier warning of the approach of a train than just listening in the usual way?

Would you expect the pitch (or frequency) of an organ pipe to increase or decrease with increasing temperature? Explain.

In most modern wind instruments the pitch is changed by using keys or valves to change the length of the vibrating air column. The bugle, however, has no valves or keys, yet it can play many notes. How might this be possible? Are there restrictions on what notes a bugle can play?

Symphonic musicians always “warm up” their wind instruments by blowing into them before a performance. What purpose does this serve?

In a popular and amusing science demonstration, a person inhales helium and then his voice becomes high and squeaky. Why does this happen? (Warning: Inhaling too much helium can cause unconsciousness or death.)

Lane dividers on highways sometimes have regularly spaced ridges or ripples. When the tires of a moving car roll along such a divider, a musical note is produced. Why? Explain how this phenomenon could be used to measure the cars speed.

(a) Does a sound level of 0 dB mean that there is no sound? (b) Is there any physical meaning to a sound having a negative intensity level? If so, what is it? (c) Does a sound intensity of zero mean that there is no sound? (d) Is there any physical meaning to a sound having a negative intensity? Why?

Which has a more direct influence on the loudness of a sound wave: the displacement amplitude or the pressure amplitude? Explain.

If the pressure amplitude of a sound wave is halved, by what factor does the intensity of the wave decrease? By what factor must the pressure amplitude of a sound wave be increased in order to increase the intensity by a factor of 16? Explain.

Does the sound intensity level \(\beta\) obey the inverse-square law? Why?

A small fraction of the energy in a sound wave is absorbed by the air through which the sound passes. How does this modify the inverse-square relationship between intensity and distance from the source? Explain

A small metal band is slipped onto one of the tines of a tuning fork. As this band is moved closer and closer to the end of the tine, what effect does this have on the wavelength and frequency of the sound the tine produces? Why?

An organist in a cathedral plays a loud chord and then releases the keys. The sound persists for a few seconds and gradually dies away. Why does it persist? What happens to the sound energy when the sound dies away?

Two loudspeakers, A and B, are driven by the same amplifier and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. The frequency of the waves emitted by each speaker is 860 Hz. Point P is 12.0 m from A and 13.4 m from B. Is the interference at P constructive or destructive? Give the reasoning behind your answer

Two vibrating tuning forks have identical frequencies, but one is stationary and the other is mounted at the rim of a rotating platform. What does a listener hear? Explain

A large church has part of the organ in the front of the church and part in the back. A person walking rapidly down the aisle while both segments are playing at once reports that the two segments sound out of tune. Why?

A sound source and a listener are both at rest on the earth, but a strong wind is blowing from the source toward the listener. Is there a Doppler effect? Why or why not?

Can you think of circumstances in which a Doppler effect would be observed for surface waves in water? For elastic waves propagating in a body of water deep below the surface? If so, describe the circumstances and explain your reasoning. If not, explain why not

Stars other than our sun normally appear featureless when viewed through telescopes. Yet astronomers can readily use the light from these stars to determine that they are rotating and even measure the speed of their surface. How do you think they can do this?

If you wait at a railroad crossing as a train approaches and passes, you hear a Doppler shift in its sound. But if you listen closely, you hear that the change in frequency is continuous; it does not suddenly go from one high frequency to another low frequency. Instead the frequency smoothly (but rather quickly) changes from high to low as the train passes. Why does this smooth change occur?

In case 1, a source of sound approaches a stationary observer at speed u. In case 2, the observer moves toward the stationary source at the same speed u. If the source is always producing the same frequency sound, will the observer hear the same frequency in both cases, since the relative speed is the same each time? Why or why not?

Does an aircraft make a sonic boom only at the instant its speed exceeds Mach 1? Explain.

If you are riding in a supersonic aircraft, what do you hear? Explain. In particular, do you hear a continuous sonic boom? Why or why not?

A jet airplane is flying at a constant altitude at a steady speed vS greater than the speed of sound. Describe what observers at points A, B, and C hear at the instant shown in Fig. Q16.25, when the shock wave has just reached point B. Explain.

Example 16.1 (Section 16.1) showed that for sound waves in air with frequency 1000 Hz, a displacement amplitude of 1.2 * 10-8 m produces a pressure amplitude of 3.0 * 10-2 Pa. (a) What is the wavelength of these waves? (b) For 1000-Hz waves in air, what displacement amplitude would be needed for the pressure amplitude to be at the pain threshold, which is 30 Pa? (c) For what wavelength and frequency will waves with a displacement amplitude of 1.2 * 10-8 m produce a pressure amplitude of 1.5 * 10-3 Pa?

Example 16.1 (Section 16.1) showed that for sound waves in air with frequency 1000 Hz, a displacement amplitude of \(1.2 \times 10^{-8} \mathrm{~m}\) produces a pressure amplitude of \(3.0 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~Pa}\). Water at \(20^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) has a bulk modulus of \(2.2 \times 10^9 \mathrm{~Pa}\), and the speed of sound in water at this temperature is 1480 m/s. For 1000-Hz sound waves in \(20^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) water, what displacement amplitude is produced if the pressure amplitude is \(3.0 \times 10^{-2} \mathrm{~Pa}\) ? Explain why your answer is much less than \(1.2 \times 10^{-8} \mathrm{~m}\).

Consider a sound wave in air that has displacement amplitude 0.0200 mm. Calculate the pressure amplitude for frequencies of (a) 150 Hz; (b) 1500 Hz; (c) 15,000 Hz. In each case compare the result to the pain threshold, which is 30 Pa

A loud factory machine produces sound having a displacement amplitude of \(1.00\ \mu \mathrm{m}\), but the frequency of this sound can be adjusted. In order to prevent ear damage to the workers, the maximum pressure amplitude of the sound waves is limited to 10.0 Pa. Under the conditions of this factory, the bulk modulus of air is \(1.42 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{\ Pa}\). What is the highest-frequency sound to which this machine can be adjusted without exceeding the prescribed limit? Is this frequency audible to the workers?

Ultrasound and Infrasound. (a) Whale communication. Blue whales apparently communicate with each other using sound of frequency 17 Hz, which can be heard nearly 1000 km away in the ocean. What is the wavelength of such a sound in seawater, where the speed of sound is 1531 m/s? (b) Dolphin clicks. One type of sound that dolphins emit is a sharp click of wavelength 1.5 cm in the ocean. What is the frequency of such clicks? (c) Dog whistles. One brand of dog whistles claims a frequency of 25 kHz for its product. What is the wavelength of this sound? (d) Bats. While bats emit a wide variety of sounds, one type emits pulses of sound having a frequency between 39 kHz and 78 kHz. What is the range of wavelengths of this sound? (e) Sonograms. Ultrasound is used to view the interior of the body, much as x rays are utilized. For sharp imagery, the wavelength of the sound should be around one-fourth (or less) the size of the objects to be viewed. Approximately what frequency of sound is needed to produce a clear image of a tumor that is 1.0 mm across if the speed of sound in the tissue is 1550 m/s?

. (a) In a liquid with density 1300 kg>m3 , longitudinal waves with frequency 400 Hz are found to have wavelength 8.00 m. Calculate the bulk modulus of the liquid. (b) A metal bar with a length of 1.50 m has density 6400 kg>m3 . Longitudinal sound waves take 3.90 * 10-4 s to travel from one end of the bar to the other. What is Youngs modulus for this metal?

A submerged scuba diver hears the sound of a boat horn directly above her on the surface of the lake. At the same time, a friend on dry land 22.0 m from the boat also hears the horn (Fig. E16.7). The horn is 1.2 m above the surface of the water. What is the distance (labeled ?) from the horn to the diver? Both air and water are at 20C.

At a temperature of \(27.0^\circ \mathrm C\), what is the speed of longitudinal waves in (a) hydrogen (molar mass 2.02 g/mol); (b) helium (molar mass 4.00 g/mol); (c) argon (molar mass 39.9 g/mol)? See Table 19.1 for values of \(\gamma\). (d) Compare your answers for parts (a), (b), and (c) with the speed in air at the same temperature.

An oscillator vibrating at 1250 Hz produces a sound wave that travels through an ideal gas at 325 m>s when the gas temperature is 22.0C. For a certain experiment, you need to have the same oscillator produce sound of wavelength 28.5 cm in this gas. What should the gas temperature be to achieve this wavelength?

(a) Show that the fractional change in the speed of sound 1dv>v2 due to a very small temperature change dT is given by dv>v = 1 2 dT>T. (Hint: Start with Eq. 16.10.) (b) The speed of sound in air at 20C is found to be 344 m>s. Use the result in part (a) to find the change in the speed of sound for a 1.0C change in air temperature.

A 60.0-m-long brass rod is struck at one end. A person at the other end hears two sounds as a result of two longitudinal waves, one traveling in the metal rod and the other traveling in air. What is the time interval between the two sounds? (The speed of sound in air is 344 m>s; see Tables 11.1 and 12.1 for relevant information about brass.)

What must be the stress 1F>A2 in a stretched wire of a material whose Youngs modulus is Y for the speed of longitudinal waves to equal 30 times the speed of transverse waves?

Energy Delivered to the Ear. Sound is detected when a sound wave causes the tympanic membrane (the eardrum) to vibrate. Typically, the diameter of this membrane is about 8.4 mm in humans. (a) How much energy is delivered to the eardrum each second when someone whispers (20 dB) a secret in your ear? (b) To comprehend how sensitive the ear is to very small amounts of energy, calculate how fast a typical 2.0-mg mosquito would have to fly (in mm/s) to have this amount of kinetic energy.

(a) By what factor must the sound intensity be increased to raise the sound intensity level by 13.0 dB? (b) Explain why you dont need to know the original sound intensity.

Eavesdropping! You are trying to overhear a juicy conversation, but from your distance of 15.0 m, it sounds like only an average whisper of 20.0 dB. How close should you move to the chatterboxes for the sound level to be 60.0 dB?

Human Hearing. A fan at a rock concert is 30 m from the stage, and at this point the sound intensity level is 110 dB. (a) How much energy is transferred to her eardrums each second? (b) How fast would a 2.0-mg mosquito have to fly (in mm>s) to have this much kinetic energy? Compare the mosquitos speed with that found for the whisper in part (a) of Exercise 16.13.

A sound wave in air at 20C has a frequency of 320 Hz and a displacement amplitude of 5.00 * 10-3 mm. For this sound wave calculate the (a) pressure amplitude (in Pa); (b) intensity (in W>m2 ); (c) sound intensity level (in decibels).

You live on a busy street, but as a music lover, you want to reduce the traffic noise. (a) If you install special sound reflecting windows that reduce the sound intensity level (in dB) by 30 dB, by what fraction have you lowered the sound intensity \(\left(\text { in } \mathrm{W} / \mathrm{m}^{2}\right)\)? (b) If, instead, you reduce the intensity by half, what change (in dB) do you make in the sound intensity level?

For a person with normal hearing, the faintest sound that can be heard at a frequency of 400 Hz has a pressure amplitude of about 6.0 * 10-5 Pa. Calculate the (a) intensity; (b) sound intensity level; (c) displacement amplitude of this sound wave at 20C

The intensity due to a number of independent sound sources is the sum of the individual intensities. (a) When four quadruplets cry simultaneously, how many decibels greater is the sound intensity level than when a single one cries? (b) To increase the sound intensity level again by the same number of decibels as in part (a), how many more crying babies are required?

A babys mouth is 30 cm from her fathers ear and 1.50 m from her mothers ear. What is the difference between the sound intensity levels heard by the father and by the mother?

The Sacramento City Council adopted a law to reduce the allowed sound intensity level of the much-despised leaf blowers from their current level of about 95 dB to 70 dB. With the new law, what is the ratio of the new allowed intensity to the previously allowed intensity?

At point A, 3.0 m from a small source of sound that is emitting uniformly in all directions, the sound intensity level is 53 dB. (a) What is the intensity of the sound at A? (b) How far from the source must you go so that the intensity is one-fourth of what it was at A? (c) How far must you go so that the sound intensity level is one-fourth of what it was at A? (d) Does intensity obey the inverse-square law? What about sound intensity level?

(a) If two sounds differ by 5.00 dB, find the ratio of the intensity of the louder sound to that of the softer one. (b) If one sound is 100 times as intense as another, by how much do they differ in sound intensity level (in decibels)? (c) If you increase the volume of your stereo so that the intensity doubles, by how much does the sound intensity level increase?

Standing sound waves are produced in a pipe that is 1.20 m long. For the fundamental and first two overtones, determine the locations along the pipe (measured from the left end) of the displacement nodes and the pressure nodes if (a) the pipe is open at both ends and (b) the pipe is closed at the left end and open at the right end.

The fundamental frequency of a pipe that is open at both ends is 524 Hz. (a) How long is this pipe? If one end is now closed, find (b) the wavelength and (c) the frequency of the new fundamental.

The Human Voice. The human vocal tract is a pipe that extends about 17 cm from the lips to the vocal folds (also called vocal cords) near the middle of your throat. The vocal folds behave rather like the reed of a clarinet, and the vocal tract acts like a stopped pipe. Estimate the first three standing-wave frequencies of the vocal tract. Use v = 344 m>s. (The answers are only an estimate, since the position of lips and tongue affects the motion of air in the vocal tract.)

The Vocal Tract. Many opera singers (and some pop singers) have a range of about 2 1 2 octaves or even greater. Suppose a sopranos range extends from A below middle C (frequency 220 Hz) up to E-flat above high C (frequency 1244 Hz). Although the vocal tract is quite complicated, we can model it as a resonating air column, like an organ pipe, that is open at the top and closed at the bottom. The column extends from the mouth down to the diaphragm in the chest cavity, and we can also assume that the lowest note is the fundamental. How long is this column of air if v = 354 m>s? Does your result seem reasonable, on the basis of observations of your own body?

The longest pipe found in most medium-size pipe organs is 4.88 m (16 ft) long. What is the frequency of the note corresponding to the fundamental mode if the pipe is (a) open at both ends, (b) open at one end and closed at the other?

Singing in the Shower. A pipe closed at both ends can have standing waves inside of it, but you normally dont hear them because little of the sound can get out. But you can hear them if you are inside the pipe, such as someone singing in the shower. (a) Show that the wavelengths of standing waves in a pipe of length L that is closed at both ends are ln = 2L>n and the frequencies are given by fn = nv>2L = nf1, where n = 1, 2, 3, c. (b) Modeling it as a pipe, find the frequency of the fundamental and the first two overtones for a shower 2.50 m tall. Are these frequencies audible?

You blow across the open mouth of an empty test tube and produce the fundamental standing wave of the air column inside the test tube. The speed of sound in air is 344 m/s and the test tube acts as a stopped pipe. (a) If the length of the air column in the test tube is 14.0 cm, what is the frequency of this standing wave? (b) What is the frequency of the fundamental standing wave in the air column if the test tube is half filled with water?

You have a stopped pipe of adjustable length close to a taut 62.0-cm, 7.25-g wire under a tension of 4110 N. You want to adjust the length of the pipe so that, when it produces sound at its fundamental frequency, this sound causes the wire to vibrate in its second overtone with very large amplitude. How long should the pipe be?

A 75.0-cm-long wire of mass 5.625 g is tied at both ends and adjusted to a tension of 35.0 N. When it is vibrating in its second overtone, find (a) the frequency and wavelength at which it is vibrating and (b) the frequency and wavelength of the sound waves it is producing

Small speakers A and B are driven in phase at 725 Hz by the same audio oscillator. Both speakers start out 4.50 m from the listener, but speaker A is slowly moved away (Fig. E16.34). (a) At what distance d will the sound from the speakers first produce destructive interference at the listeners location? (b) If A is moved even farther away than in part (a), at what distance d will the speakers next produce destructive interference at the listeners location? (c) After A starts moving away from its original spot, at what distance d will the speakers first produce constructive interference at the listeners location?

Two loudspeakers, A and B (Fig. E16.35), are driven by the same amplifier and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. Speaker B is 2.00 m to the right of speaker A. Consider point Q along the extension of the line connecting the speakers, 1.00 m to the right of speaker B. Both speakers emit sound waves that travel directly from the speaker to point Q. What is the lowest frequency for which (a) constructive interference occurs at point Q; (b) destructive interference occurs at point Q?

Two loudspeakers, A and B (see Fig. E16.35), are driven by the same amplifier and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. Speaker B is 2.00 m to the right of speaker A. The frequency of the sound waves produced by the loudspeakers is 206 Hz. Consider a point P between the speakers and along the line connecting them, a distance x to the right of A. Both speakers emit sound waves that travel directly from the speaker to point P. For what values of x will (a) destructive interference occur at P; (b) constructive interference occur at P? (c) Interference effects like those in parts (a) and (b) are almost never a factor in listening to home stereo equipment. Why not?

Two loudspeakers, A and B, are driven by the same amplifier and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. Speaker B is 12.0 m to the right of speaker A. The frequency of the waves emitted by each speaker is 688 Hz. You are standing between the speakers, along the line connecting them, and are at a point of constructive interference. How far must you walk toward speaker B to move to a point of destructive interference?

Two loudspeakers, A and B, are driven by the same amplifier and emit sinusoidal waves in phase. The frequency of the waves emitted by each speaker is 172 Hz. You are 8.00 m from A. What is the closest you can be to B and be at a point of destructive interference?

Two small stereo speakers are driven in step by the same variable-frequency oscillator. Their sound is picked up by a microphone arranged as shown in Fig. E16.39. For what frequencies does their sound at the speakers produce (a) constructive interference and (b) destructive interference?

A loud factory machine produces sound having a displacement amplitude of \(1.00\ \mu \mathrm{m}\), but the frequency of this sound can be adjusted. In order to prevent ear damage to the workers, the maximum pressure amplitude of the sound waves is limited to 10.0 Pa. Under the conditions of this factory, the bulk modulus of air is \(1.42 \times 10^{5} \mathrm{\ Pa}\). What is the highest-frequency sound to which this machine can be adjusted without exceeding the prescribed limit? Is this frequency audible to the workers?

Tuning a Violin. A violinist is tuning her instrument to concert A (440 Hz). She plays the note while listening to an electronically generated tone of exactly that frequency and hears a beat frequency of 3 Hz, which increases to 4 Hz when she tightens her violin string slightly. (a) What was the frequency of the note played by her violin when she heard the 3-Hz beats? (b) To get her violin perfectly tuned to concert A, should she tighten or loosen her string from what it was when she heard the 3-Hz beats?

Adjusting Airplane Motors. The motors that drive airplane propellers are, in some cases, tuned by using beats. The whirring motor produces a sound wave having the same frequency as the propeller. (a) If one single-bladed propeller is turning at 575 rpm and you hear 2.0-Hz beats when you run the second propeller, what are the two possible frequencies (in rpm) of the second propeller? (b) Suppose you increase the speed of the second propeller slightly and find that the beat frequency changes to 2.1 Hz. In part (a), which of the two answers was the correct one for the frequency of the second single-bladed propeller? How do you know?

Two organ pipes, open at one end but closed at the other, are each 1.14 m long. One is now lengthened by 2.00 cm. Find the beat frequency that they produce when playing together in their fundamentals.

In Example 16.18 (Section 16.8), suppose the police car is moving away from the warehouse at 20 m/s. What frequency does the driver of the police car hear reflected from the warehouse?

On the planet Arrakis a male ornithoid is flying toward his mate at 25.0 m>s while singing at a frequency of 1200 Hz. If the stationary female hears a tone of 1240 Hz, what is the speed of sound in the atmosphere of Arrakis?

A railroad train is traveling at 25.0 m>s in still air. The frequency of the note emitted by the locomotive whistle is 400 Hz. What is the wavelength of the sound waves (a) in front of the locomotive and (b) behind the locomotive? What is the frequency of the sound heard by a stationary listener (c) in front of the locomotive and (d) behind the locomotive?

Two train whistles, A and B, each have a frequency of 392 Hz. A is stationary and B is moving toward the right (away from A) at a speed of 35.0 m>s. A listener is between the two whistles and is moving toward the right with a speed of 15.0 m>s (Fig. E16.47). No wind is blowing. (a) What is the frequency from A as heard by the listener? (b) What is the frequency from B as heard by the listener? (c) What is the beat frequency detected by the listener?

Moving Source vs. Moving Listener. (a) A sound source producing 1.00-kHz waves moves toward a stationary listener at one-half the speed of sound. What frequency will the listener hear? (b) Suppose instead that the source is stationary and the listener moves toward the source at one-half the speed of sound. What frequency does the listener hear? How does your answer compare to that in part (a)? Explain on physical grounds why the two answers differ

A swimming duck paddles the water with its feet once every 1.6 s, producing surface waves with this period. The duck is moving at constant speed in a pond where the speed of surface waves is 0.32 m/s, and the crests of the waves ahead of the duck are spaced 0.12 m apart. (a) What is the duck’s speed? (b) How far apart are the crests behind the duck?

A railroad train is traveling at 30.0 m>s in still air. The frequency of the note emitted by the train whistle is 352 Hz. What frequency is heard by a passenger on a train moving in the opposite direction to the first at 18.0 m>s and (a) approaching the first and (b) receding from the first?

A car alarm is emitting sound waves of frequency 520 Hz. You are on a motorcycle, traveling directly away from the parked car. How fast must you be traveling if you detect a frequency of 490 Hz?

While sitting in your car by the side of a country road, you are approached by your friend, who happens to be in an identical car. You blow your car’s horn, which has a frequency of 260 Hz. Your friend blows his car’s horn, which is identical to yours, and you hear a beat frequency of 6.0 Hz. How fast is your friend approaching you?

Two swift canaries fly toward each other, each moving at 15.0 m>s relative to the ground, each warbling a note of frequency 1750 Hz. (a) What frequency note does each bird hear from the other one? (b) What wavelength will each canary measure for the note from the other one?

The siren of a fire engine that is driving northward at 30.0 m>s emits a sound of frequency 2000 Hz. A truck in front of this fire engine is moving northward at 20.0 m>s. (a) What is the frequency of the sirens sound that the fire engines driver hears reflected from the back of the truck? (b) What wavelength would this driver measure for these reflected sound waves?

A stationary police car emits a sound of frequency 1200 Hz that bounces off a car on the highway and returns with a frequency of 1250 Hz. The police car is right next to the highway, so the moving car is traveling directly toward or away from it. (a) How fast was the moving car going? Was it moving toward or away from the police car? (b) What frequency would the police car have received if it had been traveling toward the other car at 20.0 m>s?

How fast (as a percentage of light speed) would a star have to be moving so that the frequency of the light we receive from it is 10.0% higher than the frequency of the light it is emitting? Would it be moving away from us or toward us? (Assume it is moving either directly away from us or directly toward us.)

A jet plane flies overhead at Mach 1.70 and at a constant altitude of 1250 m. (a) What is the angle \(\alpha\) of the shock-wave cone? (b) How much time after the plane passes directly overhead do you hear the sonic boom? Neglect the variation of the speed of sound with altitude.

The shock-wave cone created by a space shuttle at one instant during its reentry into the atmosphere makes an angle of 58.0 with its direction of motion. The speed of sound at this altitude is 331 m>s. (a) What is the Mach number of the shuttle at this instant, and (b) how fast (in m>s and in mi>h) is it traveling relative to the atmosphere? (c) What would be its Mach number and the angle of its shock-wave cone if it flew at the same speed but at low altitude where the speed of sound is 344 m>s?

A soprano and a bass are singing a duet. While the soprano sings an A-sharp at 932 Hz, the bass sings an A-sharp but three octaves lower. In this concert hall, the density of air is \(1.20\mathrm{\ kg}/\mathrm{m}^3\) and its bulk modulus is \(1.42\times 10^5\mathrm{\ Pa}\). In order for their notes to have the same sound intensity level, what must be (a) the ratio of the pressure amplitude of the bass to that of the soprano and (b) the ratio of the displacement amplitude of the bass to that of the soprano? (c) What displacement amplitude (in m and in nm) does the soprano produce to sing her A-sharp at 72.0 dB?

The sound from a trumpet radiates uniformly in all directions in 20C air. At a distance of 5.00 m from the trumpet the sound intensity level is 52.0 dB. The frequency is 587 Hz. (a) What is the pressure amplitude at this distance? (b) What is the displacement amplitude? (c) At what distance is the sound intensity level 30.0 dB?

A person is playing a small flute 10.75 cm long, open at one end and closed at the other, near a taut string having a fundamental frequency of 600.0 Hz. If the speed of sound is 344.0 m>s, for which harmonics of the flute will the string resonate? In each case, which harmonic of the string is in resonance?

A uniform 165-N bar is supported horizontally by two identical wires A and B (Fig. P16.62). A small 185-N cube of lead is placed threefourths of the way from A to B. The wires are each 75.0 cm long and have a mass of 5.50 g. If both of them are simultaneously plucked at the center, what is the frequency of the beats that they will produce when vibrating in their fundamental?

An organ pipe has two successive harmonics with frequencies 1372 and 1764 Hz. (a) Is this an open or a stopped pipe? Explain. (b) What two harmonics are these? (c) What is the length of the pipe?

The frequency of the note F4 is 349 Hz. (a) If an organ pipe is open at one end and closed at the other, what length must it have for its fundamental mode to produce this note at 20.0C? (b) At what air temperature will the frequency be 370 Hz, corresponding to a rise in pitch from F to F-sharp? (Ignore the change in length of the pipe due to the temperature change.)

Two identical loudspeakers are located at points A and B, 2.00 m apart. The loudspeakers are driven by the same amplifier and produce sound waves with a frequency of 784 Hz. Take the speed of sound in air to be 344 m>s. A small microphone is moved out from point B along a line perpendicular to the line connecting A and B (line BC in Fig. P16.65). (a) At what distances from B will there be destructive interference? (b) At what distances from B will there be constructive interference? (c) If the frequency is made low enough, there will be no positions along the line BC at which destructive interference occurs. How low must the frequency be for this to be the case?

A bat flies toward a wall, emitting a steady sound of frequency 1.70 kHz. This bat hears its own sound plus the sound reflected by the wall. How fast should the bat fly in order to hear a beat frequency of 8.00 Hz?

The sound source of a ship’s sonar system operates at a frequency of 18.0 kHz. The speed of sound in water (assumed to be at a uniform 20°C) is 1482 m/s. (a) What is the wavelength of the waves emitted by the source? (b) What is the difference in frequency between the directly radiated waves and the waves reflected from a whale traveling directly toward the ship at 4.95 m/s? The ship is at rest in the water

Ultrasound in Medicine. A 2.00-MHz sound wave travels through a pregnant woman’s abdomen and is reflected from the fetal heart wall of her unborn baby. The heart wall is moving toward the sound receiver as the heart beats. The reflected sound is then mixed with the transmitted sound, and 72 beats per second are detected. The speed of sound in body tissue is 1500 m/s. Calculate the speed of the fetal heart wall at the instant this measurement is made.

Horseshoe bats (genus Rhinolophus) emit sounds from their nostrils and then listen to the frequency of the sound reflected from their prey to determine the prey’s speed. (The “horseshoe” that gives the bat its name is a depression around the nostrils that acts like a focusing mirror, so that the bat emits sound in a narrow beam like a flashlight.) A Rhinolophus flying at speed \(v_{\text {bat }}\) emits sound of frequency \(f_{\text {bat }}\); the sound it hears reflected from an insect flying toward it has a higher frequency \(f_{\mathrm{refl}}\). (a) Show that the speed of the insect is \(v_{\text {insect }}=v\left[\frac{f_{\text {refl }}\left(v-v_{\text {bat }}\right)-f_{\text {bat }}\left(v+v_{\text {bat }}\right)}{f_{\text {refl }}\left(v-v_{\text {bat }}\right)+f_{\text {bat }}\left(v+v_{\text {bat }}\right)}\right]\) where v is the speed of sound. (b) If \(f_{\text{bat }}=80.7\mathrm{\ kHz},\ f_{\text{refl }}=83.5\mathrm{\ kHz}\text{, and }v_{\text{bat }}=3.9\mathrm{\ m}/\mathrm{s}\), calculate the speed of the insect.

A police siren of frequency fsiren is attached to a vibrating platform. The platform and siren oscillate up and down in simple harmonic motion with amplitude Ap and frequency fp. (a) Find the maximum and minimum sound frequencies that you would hear at a position directly above the siren. (b) At what point in the motion of the platform is the maximum frequency heard? The minimum frequency? Explain.

A turntable 1.50 m in diameter rotates at 75 rpm. Two speakers, each giving off sound of wavelength 31.3 cm, are attached to the rim of the table at opposite ends of a diameter. A listener stands in front of the turntable. (a) What is the greatest beat frequency the listener will receive from this system? (b) Will the listener be able to distinguish individual beats?

A long, closed cylindrical tank contains a diatomic gas that is maintained at a uniform temperature that can be varied. When you measure the speed of sound v in the gas as a function of the temperature T of the gas, you obtain these results: T 1C2 -20.0 0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 v 1m,s2 324 337 349 361 372 383 (a) Explain how you can plot these results so that the graph will be well fit by a straight line. Construct this graph and verify that the plotted points do lie close to a straight line. (b) Because the gas is diatomic, g = 1.40. Use the slope of the line in part (a) to calculate M, the molar mass of the gas. Express M in grams/mole. What type of gas is in the tank?

A long tube contains air at a pressure of 1.00 atm and a temperature of 77.0C. The tube is open at one end and closed at the other by a movable piston. A tuning fork that vibrates with a frequency of 500 Hz is placed near the open end. Resonance is produced when the piston is at distances 18.0 cm, 55.5 cm, and 93.0 cm from the open end. (a) From these values, what is the speed of sound in air at 77.0C? (b) From the result of part (a), what is the value of g? (c) These results show that a displacement antinode is slightly outside the open end of the tube. How far outside is it?

Supernova! (a) Equation (16.30) can be written as \(f_{\mathrm{R}}=f_{\mathrm{S}}\left(1-\frac{v}{c}\right)^{1 / 2}\left(1+\frac{v}{c}\right)^{-1 / 2}\) where c is the speed of light in vacuum, \(3.00 \times 10^8 \mathrm{~m} / \mathrm{s}\). Most objects move much slower than this (v/c is very small), so calculations made with Eq. (16.30) must be done carefully to avoid rounding errors. Use the binomial theorem to show that if \(v \ll c\), Eq. (16.30) approximately reduces to \(f_{\mathrm{R}}=f_{\mathrm{S}}[1-(v / c)]\). (b) The gas cloud known as the Crab Nebula can be seen with even a small telescope. It is the remnant of a supernova, a cataclysmic explosion of a star. (The explosion was seen on the earth on July 4 , 1054 C.E.) Its streamers glow with the characteristic red color of heated hydrogen gas. In a laboratory on the earth, heated hydrogen produces red light with frequency \(4.568 \times 10^{14} \mathrm{~Hz}\); the red light received from streamers in the Crab Nebula that are pointed toward the earth has frequency \(4.586 \times 10^{14} \mathrm{~Hz}\). Estimate the speed with which the outer edges of the Crab Nebula are expanding. Assume that the speed of the center of the nebula relative to the earth is negligible. (c) Assuming that the expansion speed of the Crab Nebula has been constant since the supernova that produced it, estimate the diameter of the Crab Nebula. Give your answer in meters and in light-years. (d) The angular diameter of the Crab Nebula as seen from the earth is about 5 arc-minutes (1 arc-minute \(=\frac{1}{60}\) degree ). Estimate the distance (in light-years) to the Crab Nebula, and estimate the year in which the supernova actually took place.

Figure P16.75 shows the pressure fluctuation p of a nonsinusoidal sound wave as a function of x for t = 0. The wave is traveling in the +x-direction. (a) Graph the pressure fluctuation p as a function of t for x = 0. Show at least two cycles of oscillation. (b) Graph the displacement y in this sound wave as a function of x at t = 0. At x = 0, the displacement at t = 0 is zero. Show at least two wavelengths of the wave. (c) Graph the displacement y as a function of t for x = 0. Show at least two cycles of oscillation. (d) Calculate the maximum velocity and the maximum acceleration of an element of the air through which this sound wave is traveling. (e) Describe how the cone of a loudspeaker must move as a function of time to produce the sound wave in this problem.

Longitudinal Waves on a Spring. A long spring such as a Slinky is often used to demonstrate longitudinal waves. (a) Show that if a spring that obeys Hookes law has mass m, length L, and force constant k, the speed of longitudinal waves on the spring is v = L2k>m (see Section 16.2). (b) Evaluate v for a spring with m = 0.250 kg, L = 2.00 m, and k = 1.50 N>m.

If the deepest structure you wish to image is 10.0 cm from the transducer, what is the maximum number of pulses per second that can be emitted? (a) 3850; (b) 7700; (c) 15,400; (d) 1,000,000.

After a beam passes through 10 cm of tissue, what is the beams intensity as a fraction of its initial intensity from the transducer? (a) 1 * 10-11; (b) 0.001; (c) 0.01; (d) 0.1.

Because the speed of ultrasound in bone is about twice the speed in soft tissue, the distance to a structure that lies beyond a bone can be measured incorrectly. If a beam passes through 4 cm of tissue, then 2 cm of bone, and then another 1 cm of tissue before echoing off a cyst and returning to the transducer, what is the difference between the true distance to the cyst and the distance that is measured by assuming the speed is always 1540 m>s? Compared with the measured distance, the structure is actually (a) 1 cm farther; (b) 2 cm farther; (c) 1 cm closer; (d) 2 cm closer.

In some applications of ultrasound, such as its use on cranial tissues, large reflections from the surrounding bones can produce standing waves. This is of concern because the large pres-sure amplitude in an antinode can damage tissues. For a frequency of 1.0 MHz, what is the distance between antinodes in tissue? (a) 0.38 mm; (b) 0.75 mm; (c) 1.5 mm; (d) 3.0 mm.

For cranial ultrasound, why is it advantageous to use frequencies in the kHZ range rather than the MHz range? (a) The antinodes of the standing waves will be closer together at the lower frequencies than at the higher frequencies; (b) there will be no standing waves at the lower frequencies; (c) cranial bones will attenuate the ultrasound more at the lower frequencies than at the higher frequencies; (d) cranial bones will attenuate the ultrasound less at the lower frequencies than at the higher frequencies.