Answer: Psychological comfort is a benefit of having solid

Problem 1E What is the penalty for scientific fraud in the science community?

Problem 1RQ Briefly, what is science?

Problem 2E Which of the following are scientific hypotheses? (a) Chlorophyll makes grass green. (b) Earth rotates about its axis because living things need an alternation of light and darkness. (c) Tides are caused by the Moon.

Problem 2RQ Throughout the ages, what has been the general reaction to new ideas about established “truths”?

Problem 3E In answer to the question, “When a plant grows, where does the material come from?” Aristotle hypothesized by logic that all material came from the soil. Do you consider his hypothesis to be correct, incorrect, or partially correct? What experiments do you propose to support your choice?

Problem 3RQ When the Sun was directly overhead in Syene, why was it not directly overhead in Alexandria?

Problem 4E The great philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) wrote about ideas in the early part of his life that he rejected in the latter part of his life. Do you see this as a sign of weakness or as a sign of strength in Bertrand Russell? (Do you speculate that your present ideas about the world around you will change as you learn and experience more, or do you speculate that further knowledge and experience will solidify your present understanding?)

Problem 4RQ Earth, like everything else illuminated by the Sun, casts a shadow. Why does this shadow taper?

Problem 5E Bertrand Russell wrote, “I think we must retain the belief that scientific knowledge is one of the glories of man. I will not maintain that knowledge can never do harm. I think such general propositions can almost always be refuted by well-chosen examples. What I will maintain—and maintain vigorously—is that knowledge is very much more often useful than harmful and that fear of knowledge is very much more often harmful than useful.” Think of examples to support this statement.

Problem 5RQ How does the Moon’s diameter compare with the distance between Earth and the Moon?

Problem 6E When you step from the shade into the sunlight, the Sun’s heat is as evident as the heat from hot coals in a fireplace in an otherwise cold room. You feel the Sun’s heat not because of its high temperature (higher temperatures can be found in some welder’s torches), but because the Sun is big. Which do you estimate is larger, the Sun’s radius or the distance between the Moon and Earth? Check your answer in the list of physical data on the inside back cover. Do you find your answer surprising?

Problem 6RQ How does the Sun’s diameter compare with the distance between Earth and the Sun?

Problem 7E What is probably being misunderstood by a person who says, “But that’s only a scientific theory”?

Problem 7RQ Why did Aristarchus make his measurements of the Sun’s distance at the time of a half Moon?

Problem 8E The shadow cast by a vertical pillar in Alexandria at noon during the summer solstice is found to be 1/8 the height of the pillar. The distance between Alexandria and Syene is 1/8 Earth’s radius. Is there a geometric connection between these two 1-to-8 ratios?

Problem 8RQ What are the circular spots of light seen on the ground beneath a tree on a sunny day?

Problem 9E If Earth were smaller than it is, but the Alexandria-to-Syene distance were the same, would the shadow of the vertical pillar in Alexandria be longer or shorter at noon during the summer solstice?

Problem 9RQ What is the role of equations in this book?

Problem 10E Scientists call a theory that unites many ideas in a simple way “beautiful.” Are unity and simplicity among the criteria of beauty outside of science? Support your answer.

Problem 10RQ Outline some features of the scientific method.

Problem 11RQ Distinguish among a scientific fact, a hypothesis, a law, and a theory.

Problem 12RQ In daily life, people are often praised for maintaining some particular point of view, for the “courage of their convictions.” A change of mind is seen as a sign of weakness. How is this different in science?

Problem 13RQ What is the test for whether a hypothesis is scientific or not?

Problem 14RQ In daily life, we see many cases of people who are caught misrepresenting things and who soon thereafter are excused and accepted by their contemporaries. How is this different in science?

What test can you perform to increase the chance in your own mind that you are right about a particular idea?

Problem 16RQ Why are students of the arts encouraged to learn about science and science students encouraged to learn about the arts?

Problem 17RQ Why do many people believe they must choose between science and religion?

Problem 18RQ Psychological comfort is a benefit of having solid answers to religious questions. What benefit accompanies a position of not knowing the answers?

Problem 19RQ Clearly distinguish between science and technology.

Problem 20RQ Why is physics considered to be the basic science?