The first law of thermodynamics and the conservation of energy, as discussed in

Describe the photo of the tea kettle at the beginning of this section in terms of heat transfer, work done, and internal energy. How is heat being transferred? What is the work done and what is doing it? How does the kettle maintain its internal energy?

The first law of thermodynamics and the conservation of energy, as discussed in Conservation of Energy, are clearly related. How do they differ in the types of energy considered?

Heat transfer Q and work done W are always energy in transit, whereas internal energy U is energy stored in a system. Give an example of each type of energy, and state specifically how it is either in transit or resides in a system.

How do heat transfer and internal energy differ? In particular, which can be stored as such in a system and which cannot?

If you run down some stairs and stop, what happens to your kinetic energy and your initial gravitational potential energy?

Give an explanation of how food energy (calories) can be viewed as molecular potential energy (consistent with the atomic and molecular definition of internal energy).

Identify the type of energy transferred to your body in each of the following as either internal energy, heat transfer, or doing work: (a) basking in sunlight; (b) eating food; (c) riding an elevator to a higher floor.

A great deal of effort, time, and money has been spent in the quest for the so-called perpetual-motion machine, which is defined as a hypothetical machine that operates or produces useful work indefinitely and/or a hypothetical machine that produces more work or energy than it consumes. Explain, in terms of heat engines and the first law of thermodynamics, why or why not such a machine is likely to be constructed.

One method of converting heat transfer into doing work is for heat transfer into a gas to take place, which expands, doing work on a piston, as shown in the figure below. (a) Is the heat transfer converted directly to work in an isobaric process, or does it go through another form first? Explain your answer. (b) What about in an isothermal process? (c) What about in an adiabatic process (where heat transfer occurred prior to the adiabatic process)?

Would the previous question make any sense for an isochoric process? Explain your answer.

We ordinarily say that U = 0 for an isothermal process. Does this assume no phase change takes place? Explain your answer.

The temperature of a rapidly expanding gas decreases. Explain why in terms of the first law of thermodynamics. (Hint: Consider whether the gas does work and whether heat transfer occurs rapidly into the gas through conduction.)

Which cyclical process represented by the two closed loops, ABCFA and ABDEA, on the PV diagram in the figure below produces the greatest net work? Is that process also the one with the smallest work input required to return it to point A? Explain your responses.

A real process may be nearly adiabatic if it occurs over a very short time. How does the short time span help the process to be adiabatic?

It is unlikely that a process can be isothermal unless it is a very slow process. Explain why. Is the same true for isobaric and isochoric processes? Explain your answer.

Imagine you are driving a car up Pike's Peak in Colorado. To raise a car weighing 1000 kilograms a distance of 100 meters would require about a million joules. You could raise a car 12.5 kilometers with the energy in a gallon of gas. Driving up Pike's Peak (a mere 3000-meter climb) should consume a little less than a quart of gas. But other considerations have to be taken into account. Explain, in terms of efficiency, what factors may keep you from realizing your ideal energy use on this trip.

Is a temperature difference necessary to operate a heat engine? State why or why not.

Definitions of efficiency vary depending on how energy is being converted. Compare the definitions of efficiency for the human body and heat engines. How does the definition of efficiency in each relate to the type of energy being converted into doing work?

Whyother than the fact that the second law of thermodynamics says reversible engines are the most efficientshould heat engines employing reversible processes be more efficient than those employing irreversible processes? Consider that dissipative mechanisms are one cause of irreversibility.

Think about the drinking bird at the beginning of this section (Figure 15.22). Although the bird enjoys the theoretical maximum efficiency possible, if left to its own devices over time, the bird will cease drinking. What are some of the dissipative processes that might cause the bird's motion to cease?

Can improved engineering and materials be employed in heat engines to reduce heat transfer into the environment? Can they eliminate heat transfer into the environment entirely?

Does the second law of thermodynamics alter the conservation of energy principle?

Explain why heat pumps do not work as well in very cold climates as they do in milder ones. Is the same true of refrigerators?

In some Northern European nations, homes are being built without heating systems of any type. They are very well insulated and are kept warm by the body heat of the residents. However, when the residents are not at home, it is still warm in these houses. What is a possible explanation?

Why do refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps operate most cost-effectively for cycles with a small difference between Th and Tc ? (Note that the temperatures of the cycle employed are crucial to its COP .)

Grocery store managers contend that there is less total energy consumption in the summer if the store is kept at a low temperature. Make arguments to support or refute this claim, taking into account that there are numerous refrigerators and freezers in the store.

Can you cool a kitchen by leaving the refrigerator door open?

A woman shuts her summer cottage up in September and returns in June. No one has entered the cottage in the meantime. Explain what she is likely to find, in terms of the second law of thermodynamics.

Consider a system with a certain energy content, from which we wish to extract as much work as possible. Should the system's entropy be high or low? Is this orderly or disorderly? Structured or uniform? Explain briefly.

Does a gas become more orderly when it liquefies? Does its entropy change? If so, does the entropy increase or decrease? Explain your answer.

Explain how water's entropy can decrease when it freezes without violating the second law of thermodynamics. Specifically, explain what happens to the entropy of its surroundings.

Is a uniform-temperature gas more or less orderly than one with several different temperatures? Which is more structured? In which can heat transfer result in work done without heat transfer from another system?

Give an example of a spontaneous process in which a system becomes less ordered and energy becomes less available to do work. What happens to the system's entropy in this process?

What is the change in entropy in an adiabatic process? Does this imply that adiabatic processes are reversible? Can a process be precisely adiabatic for a macroscopic system?

Does the entropy of a star increase or decrease as it radiates? Does the entropy of the space into which it radiates (which has a temperature of about 3 K) increase or decrease? What does this do to the entropy of the universe?

Explain why a building made of bricks has smaller entropy than the same bricks in a disorganized pile. Do this by considering the number of ways that each could be formed (the number of microstates in each macrostate).

Explain why a building made of bricks has smaller entropy than the same bricks in a disorganized pile. Do this by considering the number of ways that each could be formed (the number of microstates in each macrostate).

Suppose you have an ideal refrigerator that cools an environment at 20.0C and has heat transfer to another environment at 50.0C . What is its coefficient of performance?

What is the best coefficient of performance possible for a hypothetical refrigerator that could make liquid nitrogen at 200C and has heat transfer to the environment at 35.0C ?

In a very mild winter climate, a heat pump has heat transfer from an environment at 5.00C to one at 35.0C . What is the best possible coefficient of performance for these temperatures? Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategies for Thermodynamics.

(a) What is the best coefficient of performance for a heat pump that has a hot reservoir temperature of 50.0C and a cold reservoir temperature of 20.0C ? (b) How much heat transfer occurs into the warm environment if 3.60107 J of work ( 10.0kW h ) is put into it? (c) If the cost of this work input is 10.0 cents/kW h , how does its cost compare with the direct heat transfer achieved by burning natural gas at a cost of 85.0 cents per therm. (A therm is a common unit of energy for natural gas and equals 1.055108 J .)

(a) What is the best coefficient of performance for a refrigerator that cools an environment at 30.0C and has heat transfer to another environment at 45.0C ? (b) How much work in joules must be done for a heat transfer of 4186 kJ from the cold environment? (c) What is the cost of doing this if the work costs 10.0 cents per 3.60106 J (a kilowatthour)? (d) How many kJ of heat transfer occurs into the warm environment? (e) Discuss what type of refrigerator might operate between these temperatures.

Suppose you want to operate an ideal refrigerator with a cold temperature of 10.0C , and you would like it to have a coefficient of performance of 7.00. What is the hot reservoir temperature for such a refrigerator?

An ideal heat pump is being considered for use in heating an environment with a temperature of 22.0C . What is the cold reservoir temperature if the pump is to have a coefficient of performance of 12.0?

A 4-ton air conditioner removes 5.06107 J (48,000 British thermal units) from a cold environment in 1.00 h. (a) What energy input in joules is necessary to do this if the air conditioner has an energy efficiency rating ( EER ) of 12.0? (b) What is the cost of doing this if the work costs 10.0 cents per 3.60106 J (one kilowatt-hour)? (c) Discuss whether this cost seems realistic. Note that the energy efficiency rating ( EER ) of an air conditioner or refrigerator is defined to be the number of British thermal units of heat transfer from a cold environment per hour divided by the watts of power input.

Show that the coefficients of performance of refrigerators and heat pumps are related by COPref = COPhp 1 . Start with the definitions of the COP s and the conservation of energy relationship between Qh , Qc , and W .

(a) On a winter day, a certain house loses 5.00108 J of heat to the outside (about 500,000 Btu). What is the total change in entropy due to this heat transfer alone, assuming an average indoor temperature of 21.0 C and an average outdoor temperature of 5.00 C ? (b) This large change in entropy implies a large amount of energy has become unavailable to do work. Where do we find more energy when such energy is lost to us?

On a hot summer day, 4.00106 J of heat transfer into a parked car takes place, increasing its temperature from 35.0 C to 45.0 C . What is the increase in entropy of the car due to this heat transfer alone?

A hot rock ejected from a volcano's lava fountain cools from 1100 C to 40.0 C , and its entropy decreases by 950 J/K. How much heat transfer occurs from the rock?

When 1.60105 J of heat transfer occurs into a meat pie initially at 20.0 C , its entropy increases by 480 J/K. What is its final temperature?

The Sun radiates energy at the rate of 3.801026 W from its 5500 C surface into dark empty space (a negligible fraction radiates onto Earth and the other planets). The effective temperature of deep space is 270 C . (a) What is the increase in entropy in one day due to this heat transfer? (b) How much work is made unavailable?

(a) In reaching equilibrium, how much heat transfer occurs from 1.00 kg of water at 40.0 C when it is placed in contact with 1.00 kg of 20.0 C water in reaching equilibrium? (b) What is the change in entropy due to this heat transfer? (c) How much work is made unavailable, taking the lowest temperature to be 20.0 C ? Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategies for Entropy

What is the decrease in entropy of 25.0 g of water that condenses on a bathroom mirror at a temperature of 35.0 C , assuming no change in temperature and given the latent heat of vaporization to be 2450 kJ/kg?

Find the increase in entropy of 1.00 kg of liquid nitrogen that starts at its boiling temperature, boils, and warms to 20.0 C at constant pressure.

A large electrical power station generates 1000 MW of electricity with an efficiency of 35.0%. (a) Calculate the heat transfer to the power station, Qh , in one day. (b) How much heat transfer Qc occurs to the environment in one day? (c) If the heat transfer in the cooling towers is from 35.0 C water into the local air mass, which increases in temperature from 18.0 C to 20.0 C , what is the total increase in entropy due to this heat transfer? (d) How much energy becomes unavailable to do work because of this increase in entropy, assuming an 18.0 C lowest temperature? (Part of Qc could be utilized to operate heat engines or for simply heating the surroundings, but it rarely is.)

(a) How much heat transfer occurs from 20.0 kg of 90.0 C water placed in contact with 20.0 kg of 10.0 C water, producing a final temperature of 50.0 C ? (b) How much work could a Carnot engine do with this heat transfer, assuming it operates between two reservoirs at constant temperatures of 90.0 C and 10.0 C ? (c) What increase in entropy is produced by mixing 20.0 kg of 90.0 C water with 20.0 kg of 10.0 C water? (d) Calculate the amount of work made unavailable by this mixing using a low temperature of 10.0 C , and compare it with the work done by the Carnot engine. Explicitly show how you follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategies for Entropy. (e) Discuss how everyday processes make increasingly more energy unavailable to do work, as implied by this problem.

Using Table 15.4, verify the contention that if you toss 100 coins each second, you can expect to get 100 heads or 100 tails once in 21022 years; calculate the time to twodigit accuracy.

What percent of the time will you get something in the range from 60 heads and 40 tails through 40 heads and 60 tails when tossing 100 coins? The total number of microstates in that range is 1.221030 . (Consult Table 15.4.)

(a) If tossing 100 coins, how many ways (microstates) are there to get the three most likely macrostates of 49 heads and 51 tails, 50 heads and 50 tails, and 51 heads and 49 tails? (b) What percent of the total possibilities is this? (Consult Table 15.4.)

(a) What is the change in entropy if you start with 100 coins in the 45 heads and 55 tails macrostate, toss them, and get 51 heads and 49 tails? (b) What if you get 75 heads and 25 tails? (c) How much more likely is 51 heads and 49 tails than 75 heads and 25 tails? (d) Does either outcome violate the second law of thermodynamics?

(a) What is the change in entropy if you start with 10 coins in the 5 heads and 5 tails macrostate, toss them, and get 2 heads and 8 tails? (b) How much more likely is 5 heads and 5 tails than 2 heads and 8 tails? (Take the ratio of the number of microstates to find out.) (c) If you were betting on 2 heads and 8 tails would you accept odds of 252 to 45? Explain why or why not.