?Do modern nuclear weapons use fission, fusion, or both? Explain

What is radioactivity? What does it mean for an atom to be radioactive?

How was radioactivity first discovered? By whom?

What are uranic rays?

What role did Marie Sklodowska Curie play in the discovery of radioactivity? How was she acknowledged for her work in radioactivity?

Explain what each symbol in the notation represents. \({ }_{Z}^{A} X\) Text Transcription: _Z ^A X

Radioactivity originates from the _____ of radioactive atoms.

What is alpha radiation? What is the symbol for an alpha particle?

What happens to an atom when it emits an alpha particle?

How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of alpha particles compare to other types of radiation?

What is beta radiation? What is the symbol for a beta particle?

What happens to an atom when it emits a beta particle?

How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of beta particles compare to other types of radiation?

What is gamma radiation? What is the symbol for a gamma ray?

What happens to an atom when it emits a gamma ray?

How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of gamma particles compare to other types of radiation?

What is positron emission? What is the symbol for a positron?

What happens to an atom when it emits a positron?

How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of positrons compare to other types of radiation?

What is a nuclear equation? What does it mean for a nuclear equation to be balanced?

Identify the parent nuclides and daughter nuclides in the nuclear equation. Which kind of radioactive decay is involved? \({ }_{91}^{231} \mathrm{~Pa} \longrightarrow{ }_{89}^{227} \mathrm{Ac}+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) Text Transcription: _91 ^231 Pa long right arrow _89 ^227 Ac + _2 ^4 He

What is a film-badge dosimeter, and how does it work?

How does a Geiger-Müller counter detect radioactivity?

Explain how a scintillation counter works.

What are some sources of natural radioactivity?

Explain the concept of half-life.

What is a radioactive decay series?

What is the source of radon in our environment? Why is radon problematic?

What is the source of carbon-14 in our environment? Why do all living organisms contain a uniform amount of carbon-14?

What happens to the carbon-14 in a living organism when it dies? How can this be used to establish how long ago the organism died?

How do we know that carbon-14 (or radiocarbon) dating is accurate? What is the age limit for which carbon-14 dating is useful?

Explain Fermi’s experiment in which he bombarded uranium with neutrons. Include a nuclear equation in your answer.

What is nuclear fission? How and by whom was it discovered?

Why can nuclear fission be used in a bomb? Include the concept of a chain reaction in your explanation.

What is a critical mass?

What was the main goal of the Manhattan Project? Who was the project leader?

How can nuclear fission be used to generate electricity?

Explain the purpose of the control rods in a nuclear reactor core. How do they work?

What are the main advantages and problems associated with nuclear electricity generation?

Can a nuclear reactor detonate the way a nuclear bomb can? Why or why not?

What is nuclear fusion?

Do modern nuclear weapons use fission, fusion, or both? Explain.

Can nuclear fusion be used to generate electricity? What are the advantages of fusion over fission for electricity generation? What are the problems with fusion?

How does radiation affect the molecules within living organisms?

What is acute radiation damage to living organisms?

Explain how radiation can increase cancer risk.

Explain how radiation can cause genetic defects. Has this ever been observed in laboratory animals? In humans?

What is the main unit of radiation exposure? How much radiation is the average U.S. resident exposed to per year?

Describe the outcomes of radiation exposure at different doses (in rem).

Explain the medical use of isotope scanning.

How is radioactivity used to treat cancer?

Draw the symbol for the isotope of lead that contains 128 neutrons.

Draw the symbol for the isotope of bismuth that contains 124 neutrons.

How many protons and neutrons are in this nuclide? \({ }_{81}^{207} \mathrm{Tl}\0 Text Transcription: _81 ^207 Tl

How many protons and neutrons are in this nuclide? \({ }_{86}^{219} \mathrm{Rn}\) Text Transcription: _86 ^219 Rn

Identify the particle represented by each symbol as an alpha particle, a beta particle, a gamma ray, a positron, a neutron, or a proton. (a) \({ }_{-1}^{0} e\) (b) \({ }_{0}^{1} \text { n }\) (c) \({ }_{0}^{0} \gamma\) Text Transcription: _-1 ^0 e _0 ^1 n _0 ^0 gamma

Identify the particle represented by each symbol as an alpha particle, a beta particle, a gamma ray, a positron, a neutron, or a proton. (a) \({ }_{1}^{1} \mathrm{p}\) (b) \({ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) (c) \({ }_{+1}^{0} \mathrm{e}\) Text Transcription: _1 ^1 p _2 ^4 He _+1 ^0 e

Complete the table.

Complete the table.

Write a nuclear equation for the alpha decay of each nuclide. (a) U-234 (b) Th-230 (c) Ra-226 (d) Rn-222

Write a nuclear equation for the alpha decay of each nuclide. (a) Po-218 (b) Po-214 (c) Po-210 (d) Th-227

Write a nuclear equation for the beta decay of each nuclide. (a) Pb-214 (b) Bi-214 (c) Th-231 (d) Ac-227

Write a nuclear equation for the beta decay of each nuclide. (a) Pb-211 (b) Tl-207 (c) Th-234 (d) Pa-234

Write a nuclear equation for positron emission by each nuclide. (a) C-11 (b) N-13 (c) O-15

Write a nuclear equation for positron emission by each nuclide. (a) Co-55 (b) Na-22 (c) F-18

Fill in the blanks in the partial decay series. \({ }_{94}^{241} \mathrm{Pu} \longrightarrow 241 \mathrm{Am}+\) ____ \({ }_{95}^{241} \mathrm{Am} \longrightarrow { }_{93}{ }^{237} \mathrm{Np}+\) ____ \({ }_{93}^{277} \mathrm{Np} \longrightarrow\) ____ \(+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) ____ \(\longrightarrow { }_{92}^{233} \mathrm{U} +{ }_{-1}^{0} \mathrm{e}\) Text Transcription: _94 ^241Pu long right arrow _95 ^241Am + ____ _95 ^241Am long right arrow _93 ^237 Np + ___ _93 ^237 Np long right arrow ___ + _2 ^4He ___ long right arrow _92 ^233U + _-1 ^0 e

Fill in the blanks in the partial decay series. \({ }_{88}^{225} \mathrm{Ra} \longrightarrow{ }_{89}^{225} \mathrm{Ac}+\) ____ \({ }_{89}^{225} \mathrm{Ac} \longrightarrow\) ____ \(+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) ____ \(\longrightarrow{ }_{85}^{217} \mathrm{At}+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) \({ }_{85}^{217} \mathrm{At}\) ____ \(+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) Text Transcription: ^225 _88Ra long right arrow ^225 _89Ac + ____ ^225 _89Ac long right arrow ____ + ^4 _2He ____ long right arrow ^217 _85At + ^4 _2He ^217 _85At long right arrow ____ + ^4 _2He

Write a partial decay series for Th-232 undergoing these sequential decays. \(\alpha, \beta, \beta, \alpha\) Text Transcription: alpha beta

Write a partial decay series for Rn-220 undergoing these sequential decays. \(\alpha, \alpha, \beta, \alpha\) Text Transcription: alpha beta

Suppose you a have a 100,000-atom sample of a radioactive nuclide that decays with a half-life of 2.0 days. How many radioactive atoms are left after 10 days?

Iodine-131 is often used in nuclear medicine to obtain images of the thyroid. If you start with \(4.0 \times 10^{10}) I-131 atoms, how many are left after approximately 1 month? I-131 has a half-life of 8.0 days. Text Transcription: 4.0x10^10

A patient is given 0.050 mg of technetium-99m (where m means metastable—an unstable but long-lived state), a radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 6.0 hours. How long until the radioactive isotope decays to \(6.3 \times 10^{-3}\) mg? Text Transcription: 6.3x10^-3

Radium-223 decays with a half-life of 11.4 days. How long does it take for a 0.240-mol sample of radium to decay to \(1.50 \times 10^{-2}\) mol? Text Transcription: 1.50x10^-2

One of the nuclides in spent nuclear fuel is U-234, an alpha emitter with a half-life of \(2.44 \times 10^{5}\) years. If a spent fuel assembly contains 2.80 kg of U-234, how long does it take for the amount of U-234 to decay to less than 0.10 kg? Text Transcription: 2.44 x 10^5

One of the nuclides in spent nuclear fuel is U-235, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 703 million years. How long does it take for the amount of U-235 to reach one-eighth of its initial amount?

A radioactive sample contains 2.45 g of an isotope with a half-life of 3.8 days. How much of the isotope in grams remains after 11.4 days?

A 68-mg sample of a radioactive nuclide is administered to a patient to obtain an image of her thyroid. If the nuclide has a half-life of 12 hours, how much of the nuclide remains in the patient after 4.0 days?

Each of the tabulated nuclides is used in nuclear medicine. List them in order of most active (largest number of decay events per second) to least active (smallest number of decay events per second).

Each of the tabulated nuclides is used in nuclear medicine. List them in order of most active (largest number of decay events per second) to least active (smallest number of decay events per second).

A wooden boat discovered just south of the Great Pyramid in Egypt had a carbon-14 content of approximately 50% of that found in living organisms. How old is the boat?

A layer of peat buried beneath the glacial sediments from the last ice age had a carbon-14 content of 25% of that found in living organisms. How long ago was this ice age?

An ancient skull has a carbon-14 content of 1.563% of that found in living organisms. How old is the skull?

A mammoth skeleton has a carbon-14 content of 12.50% of that found in living organisms. When did the mammoth live?

Write the nuclear reaction for the neutron-induced fission of U-235 to form Xe-144 and Sr-90. How many neutrons are produced in the reaction?

Write the nuclear reaction for the neutron-induced fission of U-235 to produce Te-137 and Zr-97. How many neutrons are produced in the reaction?

Write the nuclear equation for the fusion of two H-2 atoms to form He-3 and one neutron.

Write the nuclear equation for the fusion of H-3 with H-1 to form He-4.

Complete each nuclear equation. (a) \({ }_{1}^{1} \mathrm{p}+{ }_{4}^{9} \mathrm{Be} \longrightarrow\) ____\(+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) (b) \({ }_{83}^{209} \mathrm{Bi}+\)____\(\longrightarrow{ }_{111}^{272} \mathrm{Rg}+{ }_{0}^{1} \mathrm{n}\) (c) \({ }_{74}^{179} \mathrm{~W}+{ }_{-1}^{0} \mathrm{e} \longrightarrow\) ____ Text Transcription: _1 ^1p + _4 ^0Be long right arrow ____ + _2 ^4He ^209 _83Bi + ____ long right arrow ^272 _111Rg + ^1 _0n ^179 _74W + ^0 _-1e long right arrow ____

Complete each nuclear equation. (a) \({ }_{13}^{27} \mathrm{Al}+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He} \longrightarrow\) ____\(+{ }_{0}^{1} \mathrm{n}\) (b) ____ \(+{ }_{0}^{1} \mathrm{n} \longrightarrow+{ }_{14}^{29} \mathrm{Si}+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) (c) \({ }_{95}^{241} \mathrm{Am} \longrightarrow+{ }_{93}^{237} \mathrm{Np}+\) ____ Text Transcription: 27 13Al + 4 2He ¡ ____ + 1 0n ____ + 1 0n ¡ + 29 14Si + 4 2He 241 95Am ¡ + 237 93Np + ____

A breeder nuclear reactor is a reactor in which U-238 (which does not undergo fission) is converted into Pu-239 (which does undergo fission). The process involves bombardment of U-238 by neutrons to form U-239, which undergoes two sequential beta decays. Write nuclear equations to represent this process.

Write a series of nuclear equations in which Al-27 reacts with a neutron and the product undergoes an alpha decay followed by a beta decay.

The fission of U-235 produces \(3.2 \times 10^{-11}\) J/atom. How much energy does it produce per mole of U-235? Per kilogram of U-235? Text Transcription: 3.2x10^-11

The fusion of deuterium and tritium produces \(2.8 \times 10^{-12}\) J for every atom of deuterium and atom of tritium. How much energy is produced per mole of deuterium and mole of tritium? Text Transcription: 2.8x10^-12

Bi-210 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 5.0 days. If a sample contains 1.2 g of Bi-210, how many beta emissions occur in 5.0 days?

Po-218 is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 3.0 minutes. If a sample contains 55 mg of Po-218, how many alpha emissions occur in 6.0 minutes?

If a person living in a high-radon area is exposed to 0.400 rem of radiation from radon per year, and his total exposure is 0.585 rem, what percentage of his total exposure is due to radon?

An X-ray technician is exposed to 0.020 rem of radiation at work. If her total exposure is the national average (0.36 rem), what fraction of her exposure is due to on-the-job exposure?

Radium-226 (atomic mass 226.03 amu) decays to radon224, a radioactive gas. The half-life of radium-226 is \(1.6 \times 10^{3}\) years. If a 1.5-g sample of radium-226 decays for 45 days, what volume of radon gas (at \(25.0^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\) and 1.0 atm) is produced? Text Transcription: 1.6x10^3 25.0^circ C

Consider the fission reaction. \({ }_{92}^{27} \mathrm{U}+{ }_{0}^{1} \mathrm{n} \longrightarrow{ }^{142} \mathrm{Ba}+{ }_{36}^{91} \mathrm{Kr}+3{ }_{0}^{1} \mathrm{n}+\text { Energy }\) What mass of Kr-91 (atomic mass 92.93 amu) is produced by the complete fission of 15 g of U-235 (atomic mass 235.04 amu)? Text Transcription: ^235 _92U + ^1 _0n long right arrow ^142 _56Ba + ^91 _36Kr + 3 ^1 _0n + Energy

Closely examine the diagram representing the alpha decay of sodium-20 and draw the missing nucleus.

Closely examine the diagram representing the beta decay of fluorine-21 and draw the missing nucleus.

Closely examine the diagram representing the positron emission of carbon-10 and draw the missing nucleus.

A radiometric dating technique uses the decay of U-238 to Pb-206 (the half-life for this process is 4.5 billion years) to determine the age of the oldest rocks on Earth and by implication the age of Earth itself. The oldest uranium-containing rocks on Earth contain approximately equal numbers of uranium atoms and lead atoms. Assuming the rocks were pure uranium when they were formed, how old are the rocks?

Complete the table of particles involved in radioactive decay.

Radon-220 undergoes alpha decay with a half-life of 55.6 s. If there are 16,000 atoms present initially, make a table showing how many atoms are present at 0 s, 55.6 s, 111.2 s, 166.8 s, 222.4 s, and 278.0 s. (Note that the times selected for observation are multiples of the half-life.) Make a graph of number of atoms present on the y-axis and total time on the x-axis.

Write all the balanced nuclear equations for each step of the nuclear decay sequence that starts with U-238 and ends with U-234. Refer to Figure 17.9 for the decay processes involved.

For each member in your group, suggest one thing that all types of nuclear reactions have in common and one way in which they are different from each other. Try to get one contribution from each group member. Record your answers as complete sentences.

A common isotope used in medical imaging is technetium-99m, where the m stands for metastable. Metastable means that the technetium-99m isotope exists in a state that has excess energy for a time that is longer than normal. That excess energy is released over time as a gamma ray according to the following nuclear equation: \({ }_{43}^{99 \mathrm{~m}} \mathrm{Tc} \longrightarrow{ }_{43}^{99} \mathrm{Tc}+{ }_{0}^{0} \gamma\) A sample initially containing 0.500 mg of technetium-99m is monitored as a function of time. Based on its rate of gamma-ray emission, a graph, showing the mass of technetium-99m as a function of time, is prepared. Study the graph and answer the questions that follow. (a) What is the mass of technetium-99m present at 200 minutes? At 400 minutes? (b) What is the half-life of technetium-99m in minutes? In hours? (c) If a patient is given a 0.0500-mg dose of technetium-99m, how much of it is left in the patient’s body after 1 day (24 hours)? (For this problem, assume that the technetium-99m is not biologically removed from the body.) Text Transcription: ^99 _43 m Tc long right arrow ^99 _43 Tc + ^0 _0 gamma