Most metabolic pathways are not considered cycles. Why is the citric acid cycle

What stage of catabolism involves the digestion of polysaccharides?

What stage of catabolism involves the conversion of small molecules to CO2, H2O, and energy?

What is meant by a catabolic reaction in metabolism?

What is meant by an anabolic reaction in metabolism?

Why is ATP considered an energy-rich compound?

How much energy is obtained from the hydrolysis of ATP?

What is the general type of reaction that occurs during the digestion of carbohydrates?

What are the end products of the digestion of proteins?

What is the role of bile salts in lipid digestion?

How are insoluble triacylglycerols transported to the cells?

Where do dietary proteins undergo digestion in the body?

What is the purpose of digestion in stage 1?

Give the abbreviation for each of the following coenzymes: a. reduced form of NAD+ b. oxidized form of FADH2 c. participates in the formation of a carboncarbon double bond

Give the abbreviation for each of the following coenzymes: a. reduced form of FAD b. oxidized form of NADH

Identify one or more coenzymes with each of the following components: a. pantothenic acid b. niacin c. ribitol

Identify one or more coenzymes with each of the following components: a. riboflavin b. adenine c. aminoethanethiol

What is the starting compound of glycolysis?

What is the three-carbon end product of glycolysis?

How is ATP used in the initial steps of glycolysis?

How many ATP are used in the initial steps of glycolysis?

How does phosphorylation account for the production of ATP in glycolysis?

Why are there two ATP formed for one molecule of glucose?

How many ATP or NADH are produced 1or required2 in each of the following steps in glycolysis? a. glucose to glucose-6-phosphate b. glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate c. glucose to pyruvate

How many ATP or NADH are produced 1or required2 in each of the following steps in glycolysis? a. 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 3-phosphoglycerate b. fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate c. phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate

What condition is needed in the cell to convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA?

What coenzymes are needed for the oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA?

Write the overall equation for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.

What is the product of pyruvate under anaerobic conditions?

How does the formation of lactate permit glycolysis to continue under anaerobic conditions?

After running a marathon, a runner has muscle pain and cramping. What might have occurred in the muscle cells to cause this?

What are the products from one turn of the citric acid cycle?

What compounds are needed to start the citric acid cycle?

Which reactions of the citric acid cycle involve oxidation and decarboxylation?

Which reactions of the citric acid cycle involve a hydration reaction?

Which reactions of the citric acid cycle reduce NAD+?

Which reactions of the citric acid cycle reduce FAD?

Which reaction1s2 of the citric acid cycle involve1s2 a direct phosphate transfer?

What is the total NADH and total FADH2 produced in one turn of the citric acid cycle?

Refer to the diagram of the citric acid cycle in Figure 18.12 to answer each of the following: a. What are the six-carbon compounds? b. How is the number of carbon atoms decreased? c. What is the five-carbon compound? d. Which reactions are oxidation reactions?

Refer to the diagram of the citric acid cycle in Figure 18.12 to answer each of the following: a. What is the yield of \(CO_2\)? b. What are the four-carbon compounds? c. What is the yield of GTP? d. In which reactions are secondary alcohols oxidized?

What reduced coenzymes provide the electrons for electron transport?

What happens to the energy level as electrons are passed along in electron transport?

How are electrons carried from complex I to complex III?

How are electrons carried from complex III to complex IV?

How is NADH oxidized in electron transport?

How is FADH2 oxidized in electron transport?

What is meant by oxidative phosphorylation?

How is the H+ gradient established?

According to the chemiosmotic theory, how does the H+ gradient provide energy to synthesize ATP?

How does the phosphorylation of ADP occur?

How are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle linked to the production of ATP by electron transport?

Why does FADH2 yield two ATP, using the electron transport system, but NADH yields three ATP?

What is the ATP energy yield associated with each of the following? a. \(\mathrm{NADH} \longrightarrow \mathrm{NAD}^{+}\) b. \(\text { glucose } \longrightarrow 2 \text { pyruvate }\) c. \(2 \text { pyruvate } \longrightarrow 2 \text { acetyl-CoA }+2 \mathrm{CO}_{2}\) d. \(\text { acetyl-CoA } \longrightarrow 2 \mathrm{CO}_{2}\)

What is the ATP energy yield associated with each of the following? a. \(\mathrm{FADH}_2 \longrightarrow \mathrm{FAD}\) b. glucose \(+6 \mathrm{O}_2 \longrightarrow 6 \mathrm{CO}_2+6 \mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}\) c. glucose \(\longrightarrow 2\) lactate d. pyruvate \(\longrightarrow\) lactate

Where in the cell is a fatty acid activated?

What coenzymes are required for \(\beta\)-oxidation?

Caprylic acid, \(\mathrm{CH}_{3}-\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{6}-\mathrm{COOH}\), is a \(C_8\) fatty acid found in milk. a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the activated form of caprylic acid. b. Indicate the \(\alpha\)- and \(\beta\)-carbon atoms in capryloyl-CoA. c. State the number of \(\beta\)-oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of caprylic acid. d. State the number of acetyl-CoA from the complete oxidation of caprylic acid.

Lignoceric acid, CH31CH2222COOH, is a C24 fatty acid found in peanut oil in small amounts. a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the activated form of lignoceric acid. b. Indicate the a- and b-carbon atoms in lignoceroyl-CoA. c. State the number of b-oxidation cycles for the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid. d. State the number of acetyl-CoA from the complete oxidation of lignoceric acid.

Consider the complete oxidation of oleic acid, \(\mathrm{CH}_{3}-\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{7}-\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}-\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{7}-\mathrm{COOH}\), which is a \(\mathrm{C}_{18}\) monounsaturated fatty acid. a. How many cycles of \(\beta\)-oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl-CoA are produced? c. How many ATP are generated from the oxidation of oleic acid?

Consider the complete oxidation of palmitoleic acid, CH31CH225CHCH1CH227COOH, which is a C16 monounsaturated fatty acid found in animal and vegetable oils. a. How many cycles of b-oxidation are needed? b. How many acetyl-CoA are produced? c. How many ATP are generated from the oxidation of palmitoleic acid?

When are ketone bodies produced in the body?

Why would a person who is fasting have high levels of acetyl-CoA?

What are some conditions that characterize ketosis?

Why do diabetics produce high levels of ketone bodies?

Draw the condensed structural formula for the a-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination: a. NH3 + COO- H CH Glycine b. COO- CH3 Alanine

Draw the condensed structural formula for the a-keto acid produced from each of the following in transamination: a. CH Aspartate 2 COO - - OOC NH3 + CH b. CH Isoleucine CH3 2 COOCH3 CH NH3 + CH

Why does the body convert \(\mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}\) to urea?

Draw the condensed structural formula for urea.

What metabolic substrate1s2 are produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. alanine b. aspartate c. tyrosine d. glutamine

What metabolic substrate(s) are produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? a. leucine b. asparagine c. cysteine d. arginine

Lauric acid, CH31CH2210COOH, which is found in coconut oil, is a saturated fatty acid. 118.6, 18.72 Coconut oil is high in lauric acid. a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the activated form of lauric acid. b. Indicate the a- and b-carbon atoms in lauroyl-CoA. c. How many cycles of b-oxidation are needed? d. How many acetyl-CoA are produced? e. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete b-oxidation of lauric acid by completing the following: activation h -2 ATP ______ FADH2 h ______ ATP ______ NADH h ______ ATP ______ acetyl-CoA h ______ ATP Total ______ ATP

Arachidic acid CH31CH2216CH2CH2COOH is a C20 fatty acid found in peanut and fish oils. 118.6, 18.72 Peanuts contain arachidic acid, a C20 saturated fatty acid. a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the activated form of arachidic acid. b. Indicate the a- and b-carbon atoms in arachidoyl-CoA. c. How many cycles of b-oxidation are needed? d. How many acetyl-CoA are produced? e. Calculate the total ATP yield from the complete b-oxidation of arachidic acid by completing the following: activation h -2 ATP ______ FADH2 h ______ ATP ______ NADH h ______ ATP ______ acetyl-CoA h ______ ATP Total ______ ATP

Identify the type of food as carbohydrate, fat, or protein that gives each of the following digestion products: (18.2) a. glucose b. fatty acid c. maltose d. glycerol e. amino acids f. dextrins

Identify each of the following as a six-carbon or a three-carbon compound and arrange them in the order in which they occur in glycolysis: 118.42 a. 3-phosphoglycerate b. pyruvate c. glucose-6-phosphate d. glucose e. fructose-1,6-bisphosphate

Write an equation for the hydrolysis of ATP to ADP. 118.12

At the gym, you expend 310 kcal riding the stationary bicycle for 1 h. How many moles of ATP will this require? 118.12

How and where does lactose undergo digestion in the body? What are the products? (18.2)

How and where does sucrose undergo digestion in the body? What are the products? 118.22

What are the reactant and product of glycolysis? 118.42

What is the general type of reaction that takes place in the digestion of carbohydrates? (18.2)

When is pyruvate converted to lactate in the body? (18.4)

When pyruvate is used to form acetyl-CoA, the product has only two carbon atoms. What happened to the third carbon? 118.42

What is the main function of the citric acid cycle in energy production? 118.52

Most metabolic pathways are not considered cycles. Why is the citric acid cycle considered to be a metabolic cycle? 118.52

If there are no reactions in the citric acid cycle that use oxygen, O2, why does the cycle operate only in aerobic conditions? 118.52

What products of the citric acid cycle are needed for electron transport? 118.5, 18.62

In the chemiosmotic model, how is energy provided to synthesize ATP? 118.62

What is the effect of H+ accumulation in the intermembrane space? 118.62

How many ATP are produced when glucose is oxidized to pyruvate, compared to when glucose is oxidized to \(CO_2\) and \(H_2 O\)? (18.4, 18.5, 18.6)

What metabolic substrate1s2 can be produced from the carbon atoms of each of the following amino acids? 118.72 a. histidine b. isoleucine c. serine d. phenylalanine

One cell at work may break down 2 million 12 000 0002 ATP molecules in one second. Some researchers estimate that the human body has about 1013 cells. 118.12 a. How much energy, in kilocalories, would be used by the cells in the body in one day? b. If ATP has a molar mass of 507 g>mole, how many grams of ATP are hydrolyzed?

State if each of the following processes produce or consume ATP: (18.4, 18.5, 18.6) a. citric acid cycle b. glucose forms two pyruvate c. pyruvate forms acetyl-CoA d. glucose forms glucose-6-phosphate e. oxidation of a-ketoglutarate f. transport of NADH across the mitochondrial membrane g. activation of a fatty acid

Match the following ATP yields to reactions a to g: 118.4, 18.5, 18.62 2 ATP 3 ATP 6 ATP 12 ATP 18 ATP 36 ATP 44 ATP a. Glucose forms two pyruvate. b. Pyruvate forms acetyl-CoA. c. Glucose forms two acetyl-CoA. d. Acetyl-CoA goes through one turn of the citric acid cycle. e. Caproic acid 1C62 is completely oxidized. f. NADH + H+ is oxidized to NAD+. g. FADH2 is oxidized to FAD.

Identify each of the following reactions a to e in the b-oxidation of palmitic acid, a C16 fatty acid, as 118.72 112 activation 122 first oxidation 132 hydration 142 second oxidation 152 cleavage a. Palmitoyl-CoA and FAD form a, b-unsaturated palmitoylCoA and FADH2. b. b-Keto palmitoyl-CoA forms myristoyl-CoA and acetyl-CoA. c. Palmitic acid, CoA, and ATP form palmitoyl-CoA. d. a, b-Unsaturated palmitoyl-CoA and H2O form b-hydroxy palmitoyl-CoA. e. b-Hydroxy palmitoyl-CoA and NAD+ form b-keto palmitoyl-CoA and NADH + H+. 18.95 Which of the following molecules will

Which of the following molecules will produce the most ATP per mole? (18.5, 18.6) a. glucose or maltose b. myristic acid, \(\mathrm{CH}_{3}-\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{12}-\mathrm{COOH}\), or stearic acid, \(\mathrm{CH}_{3}-\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{16}-\mathrm{COOH}\) c. glucose or two acetyl-CoA d. glucose or caprylic acid \(\left(\mathrm{C}_{8}\right)\) e. citrate or succinate in one turn of the citric acid cycle

Which of the following molecules will produce the most ATP per mole? 118.5, 18.62 a. glucose or stearic acid 1C182 b. glucose or two pyruvate c. two acetyl-CoA or one palmitic acid 1C162 d. lauric acid 1C122 or palmitic acid 1C162 e. a-ketoglutarate or fumarate in one turn of the citric acid cycle

Beano contains an enzyme that breaks down polysaccharides into mono- and disaccharides that are more digestible. It is used to diminish gas formation that can occur after eating foods such as beans or cruciferous vegetables like cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and broccoli. (16.5, 16.6) a. The label on beano says “contains alpha-galactosidase.” What class of enzyme is present in beano? b. What is the substrate for the enzyme? c. The directions indicate you should not heat or cook beano. Why?

Kevlar is a lightweight polymer used in tires and bulletproof vests. Part of the strength of Kevlar is due to hydrogen bonds between polymer chains. (14.6, 16.4) a. Draw the condensed structural formula for the carboxylic acid and amine that are polymerized to make Kevlar. b. What feature of Kevlar will produce hydrogen bonds between the polymer chains? c. What type of secondary protein structure has bonds that are similar to those in Kevlar?

Identify each of the following as a substance that is part of the citric acid cycle, electron transport, or both: 118.4, 18.5, 18.62 a. succinate b. QH2 c. FAD d. cyt c e. H2O f. malate g. NAD+

Use the energy value of 7.3 kcal per mole of ATP and determine the total energy, in kilocalories, stored as ATP from each of the following: 118.4, 18.5, 18.62 a. the reactions of 1 mole of glucose in glycolysis b. the oxidation of 2 moles of pyruvate to 2 moles of acetyl-CoA c. the complete oxidation of 1 mole of glucose to CO2 and H2O d. the b-oxidation of 1 mole of lauric acid, a C12 fatty acid, in b-oxidation e. the reaction of 1 mole of glutamate 1from protein2 in the citric acid cycle

Acetyl-CoA is the fuel for the citric acid cycle. It has the formula \(\mathrm{C}_{23} \mathrm{H}_{38} \mathrm{~N}_{7} \mathrm{O}_{17} \mathrm{P}_{3} \mathrm{~S}\). (7.2, 18.3, 18.5) a. What are the components of acetyl-CoA? b. What is the function of acetyl-CoA? c. Where does the acetyl group attach to CoA? d. What is the molar mass, to 3 significant figures, of acetyl-CoA?

Behenic acid is a C22 saturated fatty acid 122:02 found in peanut and canola oils. 118.72

Butter is a fat that contains 80% by mass triacylglycerols; the rest is water. Assume the triacylglycerol in butter is glyceryl tripalmitate. 12.4, 2.5, 2.6, 7.2, 7.6, 14.4, 18.72 Butter is high in triacylglycerols. a. Write the balanced chemical equation for the hydrolysis of glyceryl tripalmitate. b. What is the molar mass of glyceryl tripalmitate, C51H98O6? c. Calculate the ATP yield from the complete oxidation of palmitic acid. d. How many kilocalories are released from the palmitic acid in a 0.50-oz pat of butter? e. If running for 1 h uses 750 kcal, how many pats of butter would provide the energy 1kcal2 for a 45-min run?

Thalassemia is an inherited genetic mutation that limits the production of the beta chain needed for the formation of hemoglobin. If low levels of the beta chain are produced, there is a shortage of red blood cells 1anemia2; as a result, the body does not have sufficient amounts of oxygen. In one form of thalassemia, a single nucleotide is deleted in the DNA that codes for the beta chain. The mutation involves the deletion of thymine 1T2 from section 91 in the following coding strand of normal DNA. 116.3, 17.3, 17.4, 17.5, 17.62 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 AGT GAG CTG CAC TGT GAC A. . . .

In response to signals from the nervous system, the hypothalamus secretes a polypeptide hormone known as gonadotropin-releasing factor (GnRF), which stimulates the pituitary gland to release other hormones into the bloodstream. Two of these hormones are luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). GnRF is a decapeptide with the following primary structure: (16.1, 16.2, 16.3) \(\text { Glu-His - Trp-Ser-Tyr-Gly-Leu-Arg-Pro-Gly }\) a. What is the N-terminal amino acid in GnRF? b. What is the C-terminal amino acid in GnRF? c. Which amino acids in GnRF are nonpolar or polar neutral? d. Draw the condensed structural formulas for the acidic or basic amino acids in GnRF at physiological pH.