Describe the type and nature of the bonding that often

Problem 7P Identify the mass law that each of the following observations demonstrates, and explain your reasoning: (a) A sample of potassium chloride from Chile contains the same percent by mass of potassium as one from Poland. (b) A flashbulb contains magnesium and oxygen before use and magnesium oxide afterward, but its mass does not change. (c) Arsenic and oxygen form one compound that is 65.2 mass % arsenic and another that is 75.8 mass % arsenic.

Which of the following scenes illustrate(s) the fact that com- pounds of chlorine (green) and oxygen (red) exhibit the law of multiple proportions? Name the compounds.

State the mass law(s) demonstrated by the following experimental results, and explain your reasoning: Experiment 1: A student heats 1.27 g of copper and 3.50 g of iodine to produce 3.81 g of a white compound, and 0.96 g of iodine remains. Experiment 2: A second student heats 2.55 g of copper and 3.50 g of iodine to form 5.25 g of a white compound, and 0.80 g of copper remains.

Problem 11P State the mass law(s) demonstrated by the following experimental results, and explain your reasoning: Experiment 1: A student heats1.27g of copper and 3.50 g of iodine to produce 3.81 g of a white compound; 0.96 g of iodine remains. Experiment 2: A second student heats 2.55g of copper and 3.50 g of iodine to form 5.25 g of a white compound, and 0.80 g of copper remains.

Problem 6P To which classes of matter—element, compound, and/or mixture—do the following apply: (a) law of mass conservation; (b) law of definite composition; (c) law of multiple proportions?

Fluorite, a mineral of calcium, is a compound of the metal with fluorine. Analysis shows that a \(\text { 2.76-g }\) sample of fluorite contains \(1.42\mathrm{\ g}\) of calcium. Calculate the (a) mass of fluorine in the sample; (b) mass fractions of calcium and fluorine in fluorite: (c) mass percents of calcium and fluorine in fluorite.

Problem 13P Galena, a mineral of lead, is a compound of the metal with sulfur. Analysis shows that a 2.34-g sample of galena contains 2.03 g of lead. Calculate the (a) mass of sulfur in the sample; (b) mass fractions of lead and sulfur in galena; (c) mass percents of lead and sulfur in galena.

Problem 14P A compound of copper and sulfur contains 88.39 g of metal and 44.61 g of nonmetal. How many grams of copper are in 5264 kg of compound? How many grams of sulfur?

Problem 15P A compound of iodine and cesium contains 63.94 g of metal and 61.06 g of nonmetal. How many grams of cesium are in 38.77 g of compound? How many grams of iodine?

Problem 16P Show, with calculations, how the following data illustrate the law of multiple proportions: Compound 1:47.5 mass % sulfur and 52.5 mass % chlorine Compound 2: 31.1 mass % sulfur and 68.9 mass % chlorine

Problem 17P Show, with calculations, how the following data illustrate the law of multiple proportions: Compound 1: 77.6 mass % xenon and 22.4 mass % fluorine Compound 2: 63.3 mass % xenon and 36.7 mass % fluorine

Problem 18P Dolomite is a carbonate of magnesium and calcium. Analysis shows that 7.81 g of dolomite contains 1.70 g of Ca. Calculate the mass percent of Ca in dolomite. On the basis of the mass percent of Ca, and neglecting all other factors, which is the richer source of Ca, dolomite or fluorite (see Problem 2.20)?

Problem 19P The mass percent of sulfur in a sample of coal is a key factor in the environmental impact of the coal because the sulfur combines with oxygen when the coal is burned and the oxide can then be incorporated into acid rain. Which of the following coals would have the smallest environmental impact? Mass (g) of Sample Mass (g) of Sulfur in Sample Coal A 378 11.3 Coal B 495 19.0 Coal C 675 20.6

Problem 20P Use Dalton's theory to explain why potassium nitrate from India or Italy has the same mass percents of K, N, and O.

Problem 22P When Rutherford's coworkers bombarded gold foil with a particles, they obtained results that overturned the existing (Thomson) model of the atom. Explain.

Problem 23P Choose the correct answer. The difference between the mass number of an isotope and its atomic number is (a) directly related to the identity of the element: (b) the number of electrons: (c) the number of neutrons; (d) the number of isotopes.

Problem 24P Argon has three naturally occurring isotopes, 36Ar,38Ar. and 40Ar. What is the mass number of each? How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in each?

Problem 25P Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 35C1 and 37C1. What is the mass number of each isotope? How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are present in each?

Do both members of the following pairs have the same number of protons? Neutrons? Electrons? (a) \({ }_{8}^{16} \mathrm{O} \text { and }{ }_{8}^{17} \mathrm{O}\) (b) \({ }_{18}^{40} A r \text { and }{ }_{19}^{41} K\) © \({ }_{27}^{60} \mathrm{Co} \text { and }{ }_{28}^{60} \mathrm{Ni}\) Which pair(s) consist(s) of atoms with the same Z value? N value? A value? Equation Transcription: and and and Text Transcription: _8^16O and _8^17O _18^40Ar and _19^41K _27^60Co and _28^60Ni

Write the \({ }_{Z}^{A} \mathrm{x}\) notation for each atomic depiction: Equation Transcription: X Text Transcription: _Z^A X

Write the \({ }_{Z}^{A} \mathrm{x}\) notation for each atomic depiction: Equation Transcription: X Text Transcription: _Z^A X

Draw atomic depictions similar to those in Problem 2.28 for (a) \({ }_{22}^{48} \mathrm{Ti} ;\) (b) \({ }_{34}^{79} \mathrm{Se}\) (c) \({ }_{5}^{11} \mathrm{~B}\) Equation Transcription: Ti; Se; B; Text Transcription: _22^48Ti; _34^79Se; _5^11B;

Do both members of the following pairs have the same number of protons? Neutrons? Electrons? (a) \({ }_{1}^{3} \mathrm{H} \text { and }{ }_{2}^{3} \mathrm{He}\) (b) \({ }_{6}^{14} \mathrm{C} \text { and } 15 \mathrm{~N}\) (c) \({ }_{9}^{19} \mathrm{~F} \text { and }{ }_{9}^{18} \mathrm{~F}\) Equation Transcription: H and He C and N F and F Text Transcription: _1^3H and _2^3He _6^14C and _7^15N _9^19F and _9^18F

Draw atomic depictions similar to those in Problem 2.28 for (a) \({ }_{82}^{207} \mathrm{~Pb}\) (b) \({ }_{4}^{9} \mathrm{Be}\) (c) \({ }_{33}^{75} \mathrm{As} \text {; }\) Equation Transcription: Pb; Be; As; Text Transcription: _82^207Pb; _4^9Be; _33^75As;

Problem 32P Gallium has two naturally occurring isotopes, 69Ga (isotopic mass 68.9256 amu, abundance 60.11%) and 71Ga (isotopic mass 70.9247 amu, abundance 39.89%). Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.

Problem 33P Magnesium has three naturally occurring isotopes. 24Mg (isotopic mass 23.9850 amu. abundance 78.99%). 25Mg (isotypic mass 24.9858 amu, abundance 10.00%), and 26Mg (isotopic mass 25.9826 amu, abundance 11.01%). Calculate the atomic mass of magnesium.

Problem 34P Chlorine has two naturally occurring isotopes, 35C1 (isotopic mass 34.9689 amu) and 37C1 (isotopic mass 36.9659 amu). If chlorine has an atomic mass of 35.4527 amu, what is the percent abundance of each isotope?

Problem 37P What class of elements lies along the "staircase" line in the periodic table? How do their properties compare with those of metals and nonmetals?

Problem 35P Copper has two naturally occurring isotopes, 63Cu (isotopic mass 62.9396 amu) and 65Cu (isotopic mass 64.9278 amu). If copper has an atomic mass of 63.546 amu, what is the percent abundance of each isotope?

Problem 38P What are some characteristic properties of elements to the left of the elements along the "staircase"? To the right?

Problem 39P Give the name, atomic symbol, and group number of the element with the following Z value, and classify it as a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal: (a) Z = 32 (b) Z = 15 (c) Z = 2 (d) Z = 3 (e) Z=42

Problem 36P Correct each of the following statements: (a) In the modern periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic mass. (b) Elements in a period have similar chemical properties. (c) Elements can be classified as either metalloids or nonmetals.

Problem 40P Give the name, atomic symbol, and group number of the element with the following Z value, and classify it as a metal, metalloid, or nonmetal: (a) Z = 33 (b) Z = 20 (c) Z=35 (d) Z=19 (e) Z=13

Problem 43P Describe the type and nature of the bonding that occurs between reactive metals and nonmetals.

Problem 41P Fill in the blanks: (a) The symbol and atomic number of the heaviest alkaline earth metal are_____________ and_____________ (b)The symbol and atomic number of the lightest metalloid in Group 4A(14) are_____________ and_____________ (c) Group 1B(11) consists of the coinage metals. The symbol and atomic mass of the coinage metal whose atoms have the fewest electrons are_____________ and_____________ (d)The symbol and atomic mass of the halogen in Period 4 are_____________ and_____________

Problem 45P Given that the ions in LiF and in MgO are of similar size, which compound has stronger ionic bonding? Use Coulomb's law in your explanation.

Problem 44P Describe the type and nature of the bonding that often occurs between two nonmetals.

Problem 47P Does potassium nitrate (KN03) incorporate ionic bonding, covalent bonding, or both? Explain.

Problem 46P Describe the formation of solid magnesium chloride (MgCl2) from large numbers of magnesium and chlorine atoms.

Problem 48P What monatomic ions do potassium ( Z = 19) and iodine ( Z = 53) form?

For each ionic depiction, give the name of the parent atom, its mass number, and its group and period numbers:

Problem 49P What monatomic ions do barium ( Z = 56) and selenium ( Z = 34) form?

For each ionic depiction, give the name of the parent atom, its mass number, and its group and period numbers:

Problem 52P An ionic compound forms when lithium ( Z = 3) reacts with oxygen ( Z = 8). If a sample of the compound contains 8.4× 1021 lithium ions, how many oxide ions does it contain?

Problem 55P The radii of the lithium and magnesium ions are 76 pm and 72 pm, respectively. Which compound has stronger ionic attractions, lithium oxide or magnesium oxide?

Problem 53P An ionic compound forms when calcium ( Z = 20) reacts with iodine ( Z = 53). If a sample of the compound contains 7.4×1021calcium ions, how many iodide ions does it contain?

Problem 54P The radii of the sodium and potassium ions are 102 pm and 138 pin. respectively. Which compound has stronger ionic attractions, sodium chloride or potassium chloride?

Problem 56P What is the difference between an empirical formula and a molecular formula? Can they ever be the same?

Problem 58P Write an empirical formula for each of the following: (a) Hydrazine, a rocket fuel, molecular formula N2H4 (b) Glucose, a sugar, molecular formula C6H1206

Problem 57P Consider a mixture of 10 billion 02 molecules and 10 billion H2 molecules. In what way is this mixture similar to a sample containing 10 billion hydrogen peroxide (H202) molecules? In what way is it different?

Problem 59P Write an empirical formula for each of the following: (a) Ethylene glycol, car antifreeze, molecular formula C2H602 (b) Peroxodisulfuric acid, a compound used to make bleaching agents, molecular formula H2S208

Problem 60P Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the following elements: (a) sodium and nitrogen; (b) oxygen and strontium; (c) aluminum and chlorine.

Problem 61P Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the following elements: (a) cesium and bromine; (b) sulfur and barium; (c) calcium and fluorine.

Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the following elements: (a) \(_{12}\mathrm{L}\text{ and }_9\mathrm{M}\) (b) \(_{30}\mathrm{L}\text{ and }_{16}\mathrm{M}\) (c) \(_{17}\mathrm{L}\text{ and }_{38}\mathrm{M}\)

Problem 64P Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for the names: (a) tin(IV) chloride; (b) FeBr3; (c) cuprous bromide; (d) Mn2O3.

Problem 63P Give the name and formula of the compound formed from the following elements: (a) 37Q and 35R (b) 8Q and 13R (c) 20Q and 53R

Problem 65P Give the systematic names for the formulas or the formulas for the names: (a) Na2HPO4; (b) potassium carbonate dihydrate; (c) NaNO2; (d) ammonium perchlorate.

Problem 66P Correct each of the following formulas: (a) Barium oxide is BaO2. (b) Iron(II) nitrate is Fe(NO3)3. (c) Magnesium sulfide is MnSO3.

Problem 67P Correct each of the following names: (a) Cul iscobalt(II) iodide. (b) Fe(HSO4)3 is iron(II) sulfate. (c) MgCr2O7 is magnesium dichromium heptaoxide.

Problem 68P Give the name and formula for the acid derived from each of the following anions: (a) hydrogen sulfate (b) IO3 - (c) cyanide (d) HS-

Problem 70P Give the name and formula of the compound whose molecules consist of two sulfur atoms and four fluorine atoms.

Problem 69P Give the name and formula for the acid derived from each of the following anions: (a) perchlorate (b)NO3 - (c)bromite (d)F -

Problem 71P Give the name and formula of the compound whose molecules consist of two chlorine atoms and one oxygen atom.

Problem 72P Give the number of atoms of the specified element in a formula unit of each of the following compounds, and calculate the molecular (formula) mass: (a) Oxygen in aluminum sulfate. A12(SO4)3 (b) Hydrogen in ammonium hydrogen phosphate, (NH4)2HPO4 (c) Oxygen in the mineral azurite, Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2

Problem 73P Give the number of atoms of the specified element in a formula unit of each of the following compounds, and calculate the molecular (formula) mass: (a) Hydrogen in ammonium benzoate, C6H5COONH4 (b) Nitrogen in hydrazinium sulfate, N2H6SO4 (c) Oxygen in the mineral leadhillite, Pb4SO4(CO3)2(OH)2

Problem 74P Write the formula of each compound, and determine its molecular (formula) mass: (a) ammonium sulfate; (b) sodium dihy- drogen phosphate; (c) potassium bicarbonate

Problem 75P Write the formula of each compound, and determine its molecular (formula) mass: (a) sodium dichromate; (b) ammonium Perchlorate; (c) magnesium nitrite trihydrate.

Give the name, empirical formula, and molecular mass of the molecule depicted in Figure \(P2.76\). Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: P2.76

Problem 79P Before the use of systematic names, many compounds had common names. Give the systematic name for each of the following: (a) blue vitriol, CuSO4• 5H2O; (b) slaked lime, Ca(OH)2; (c) oil of vitriol, H2SO4; (d) washing soda, Na2CO3 (e) muriatic acid, HC1: (f) Epsom salt. MgSO4•7H2O; (g) chalk. CaCO3; (h) dry ice, CO2; (i) baking soda, NaHCO3; (j) lye. NaOH.

Problem 80P In what main way is separating the components of a mixture different from separating the components of a compound?

Problem 81P What is the difference between a homogeneous and a heterogeneous mixture?

Give the name, empirical formula, and molecular mass of the molecule depicted in Figure \(P2.77\). Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: P2.77

Problem 82P Is a solution a homogeneous or a heterogeneous mixture? Give an example of an aqueous solution.

Problem 83P Classify each of the following as a compound, a homogeneous mixture, or a heterogeneous mixture: (a) distilled water; (b) gasoline; (c) beach sand; (d) wine; (e) air.

Problem 84P Classify each of the following as a compound, a homogeneous mixture, or a heterogeneous mixture: (a) orange juice; (b) vegetable soup; (c) cement; (d) calcium sulfate; (e) tea.

Problem 85P Helium is the lightest noble gas and the second most abundant element (after hydrogen) in the universe. (a)The radius of a helium atom is 3.1 ×10-11 m; the radius of its nucleus is 2.5×10-15 m. What fraction of the spherical atomic volume is occupied by the nucleus (V of a sphere = 4 3 ? r 3 ) ? (b)The mass of a helium-4 atom is 6.64648 ×10-24 g. and each of its two electrons has a mass of 9.10939× 10-28 g. What fraction of this atom's mass is contributed by its nucleus?

Scenes A–I depict various types of matter on the atomic scale. Choose the correct scene(s) for each of the following: 1. A mixture that fills its container 2. A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler ones 3. An element with a very high resistance to flow 4. A homogeneous mixture 5. An element that conforms to the walls of its container and displays a surface 6. A gas consisting of diatomic particles 7. A gas that can be broken down into simpler substances 8. A substance with a \(2/1\) ratio of its component atoms 9. Matter that can be separated into its component substances by physical means 10. A heterogeneous mixture 11. Matter that obeys the law of definite composition Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: 2/1

Problem 87P Nitrogen forms more oxides than any other element. The percents by mass of N in three different nitrogen oxides are (I) 46.69%; (II) 36.85%; (III) 25.94%. (a) Determine the empirical formula of each compound, (b) How many grams of oxygen per 1.00 g of nitrogen are in each compound?

Problem 89P Dinitrogen monoxide (N2O; nitrous oxide) is a greenhouse gas that enters the atmosphere principally from natural fertilizer breakdown. Some studies have shown that the isotope ratios of,5N to 14N and of l8O to l6O in N2O depend on the source, which can thus be determined by measuring the relative abundance of molecular masses in a sample of N2O. (a) What different molecular masses are possible for N2O? (b)The percent abundance of l4N is 99.6%, and that of 16O is 99.8%. Which molecular mass of N2O is least common, and which is most common?

Problem 90P The seven most abundant ions in seawater make up more than 99% by mass of the dissolved compounds. They are listed in units of mg ion/kg seawater: chloride 18,980; sodium 10,560; sulfate 2650; magnesium 1270; calcium 400; potassium 380; hydrogen carbonate 140. (a) What is the mass % of each ion in seawater? (b) What percent of the total mass of ions is sodium ion? (c) How does the total mass % of alkaline earth metal ions compare with the total mass % of alkali metal ions? (d) Which makes up the larger mass fraction of dissolved components, anions or cations?

The scenes below represent a mixture of two monatomic gases undergoing a reaction when heated. Which mass law(s) is (are) illustrated by this change?

Give the molecular mass of each compound depicted below, and provide a correct name for any that are named incorrectly.

Problem 92P When barium (Ba) reacts with sulfur (S) to form barium sulfide (BaS), each Ba atom reacts with an S atom. If 2.50 cm3 of Ba reacts with 1.75 cm3 of S. are there enough Ba atoms to react with the S atoms (d of Ba = 3.51 g/cm3; d of S = 2.07 g/cm3)?

Succinic acid (below) is an important metabolite in biological energy production. Give the molecular formula, empirical formula, and molecular mass of succinic acid, and calculate the mass percent of each element.

Which of the following models represent compounds having the same empirical formula? What is the molecular mass of this common empirical formula?

Problem 96P The two isotopes of potassium with significant abundance in nature are 39K (isotopic mass 38.9637 amu, 93.258%) and 41K (isotopic mass 40.9618 amu, 6.730%). Fluorine has only one naturally occurring isotope, 19F (isotopic mass 18.9984 amu). Calculate the formula mass of potassium fluoride.

Problem 95P Antimony has many uses, for example, in infrared devices and as part of an alloy in lead storage batteries. The element has two naturally occurring isotopes, one with mass 120.904 amu, the other with mass 122.904 amu. (a) Write the AZX notation for each isotope, (b) Use the atomic mass of antimony from the periodic table to calculate the natural abundance of each isotope.

Dimercaprol (\(\mathrm{HSCH}_{2} \mathrm{CHSHCH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}\)) was developed during World War I as an antidote to arsenic-based poison gas and is used today to treat heavy-metal poisoning. It binds the toxic element and carries it out of the body. (a) If each molecule binds one arsenic (As) atom, how many atoms of As could be removed by 175 mg of dimercaprol? (b) If one molecule binds one metal atom, calculate the mass % of each of the following metals in a metal-dimercaprol combination: mercury, thallium, chromium.

TNT (trinitrotoluene; below) is used as an explosive in construction. Calculate the mass of each element in \(1.00 lb\) of TNT. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: . 1.00 lb

Problem 101P From the following ions and their radii (in pm), choose a pair that gives the strongest ionic bonding and a pair that gives the weakest: Mg2+ 72; K+138; Rb-+ 152: Ba2+ 135; Cl- 181; O2- 140; I- 220.

Problem 102P A rock is 5.0% by mass fayalite (Fe2Si04), 7.0% by mass forsterite (Mg2Si04), and the remainder silicon dioxide. What is the mass percent of each element in the rock?

Problem 99P The anticancer drug Platinol (Cisplatin), Pt(NH3)2Cl2, reacts with the cancer cell's DNA and interferes with its growth, (a) What is the mass % of platinum (Pt) in Platinol? (b) If Pt costs $ 19/g. how many grams of Platinol can be made for $ 1.00 million (assume that the cost of Pt determines the cost of the drug)?

Problem 103P Fluoride ion is poisonous in relatively low amounts: 0.2 g of F- per 70 kg of body weight can cause death. Nevertheless, in order to prevent tooth decay, F- ions are added to drinking water at a concentration of 1 mg of F- ion per L of water. How many liters of fluoridated drinking water would a 70-kg person have to consume in one day to reach this toxic level? How many kilograms of sodium fluoride would be needed to treat a 8.5 ×107-gal reservoir?

Problem 104P Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is a bioactive molecule in blood. Low NO concentrations cause respiratory distress and the formation of blood clots. Doctors prescribe nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9. and isoamyl nitrate. (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO2, to increase NO. If each compound releases one molecule of NO per atom of N. calculate the mass percent of NO in each medicine.

Problem 105P Which of the following steps in an overall process involve(s) a physical change and which involve(s) a chemical change?

Problem 1P What is the key difference between an element and a compound?

Problem 2P List two differences between a compound and a mixture.

Problem 3P Which of the following are pure substances? Explain. (a) Calcium chloride, used to melt ice on roads, consists of two elements, calcium and chlorine, in a fixed mass ratio. (b) Sulfur consists of sulfur atoms combined into octatomic molecules. (c) Baking powder, a leavening agent, contains 26% to 30% sodium hydrogen carbonate and 30% to 35% calcium dihydro- gen phosphate by mass. (d) Cytosine, a component of DNA, consists of H, C, N, and O atoms bonded in a specific arrangement.

Problem 4P Classify each substance in Problem 2.3 as an element, compound, or mixture, and explain your answers.

Each molecular-scale scene below represents a mixture. Describe each one in terms of the number of elements and/or compounds present.

Which of the following steps in an overall process involve(s) a physical change and which involve(s) a chemical change?

Problem 101P From the following ions and their radii (in pm), choose a pair that gives the strongest ionic bonding and a pair that gives the weakest: Mg2+ 72; K+138; Rb-+ 152: Ba2+ 135; Cl- 181; O2- 140; I- 220.

Problem 103P Fluoride ion is poisonous in relatively low amounts: 0.2 g of F- per 70 kg of body weight can cause death. Nevertheless, in order to prevent tooth decay, F- ions are added to drinking water at a concentration of 1 mg of F- ion per L of water. How many liters of fluoridated drinking water would a 70-kg person have to consume in one day to reach this toxic level? How many kilograms of sodium fluoride would be needed to treat a 8.5 ×107-gal reservoir?

Problem 102P A rock is 5.0% by mass fayalite (Fe2Si04), 7.0% by mass forsterite (Mg2Si04), and the remainder silicon dioxide. What is the mass percent of each element in the rock?

Problem 104P Nitrogen monoxide (NO) is a bioactive molecule in blood. Low NO concentrations cause respiratory distress and the formation of blood clots. Doctors prescribe nitroglycerin, C3H5N3O9. and isoamyl nitrate. (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO2, to increase NO. If each compound releases one molecule of NO per atom of N. calculate the mass percent of NO in each medicine.