What is a film-badge dosimeter, and how does it work?

Problem 102P A radiometric dating technique uses the decay of U-238 to Pb-206 (the half-life for this process is 4.5 billion years) to determine the age of the oldest rocks on Earth and by implication the age of Earth itself. The oldest uranium- containing rocks on Earth contain approximately equal numbers of uranium atoms and lead atoms. Assuming the rocks were pure uranium when they were formed, how old are the rocks?

How was radioactivity first discovered? By whom?

Problem 3Q What are uranic rays?

Problem 1Q What is radioactivity? What does it mean for an atom to be radioactive?

Explain what each symbol in the notation represents. \({ }_{Z}^{A} X\)

Problem 6Q Radioactivity originates from the ____ of radioactive atoms.

Problem 4Q What role did Marie Sklodowska Curie play in the discovery of radioactivity? How was she acknowledged for her work in radioactivity?

Problem 7Q What is alpha radiation? What is the symbol for an alpha particle?

Problem 8Q What happens to an atom when it emits an alpha particle?

Problem 10Q What is beta radiation? What is the symbol for a beta particle?

Problem 9Q How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of alpha particles compare to other types of radiation?

What is gamma radiation? What is the symbol for a gamma ray?

Problem 11Q What happens to an atom when it emits a beta particle?

Problem 17Q What happens to an atom when it emits a positron?

Problem 12Q How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of beta particles compare to other types of radiation?

Problem 23Q Explain how a scintillation counter works.

Problem 24Q What are some sources of natural radioactivity?

Problem 18Q How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of positrons compare to other types of radiation?

Problem 25Q Explain the concept of half-life.

Problem 22Q How does a Geiger-Müller counter detect radioactivity?

Problem 33Q Why can nuclear fission be used in a bomb? Include the concept of a chain reaction in your explanation.

Problem 34Q What is a critical mass?

Problem 39Q Can a nuclear reactor detonate the way a nuclear bomb can? Why or why not?

What was the main goal of the Manhattan Project? Who was the project leader?

Problem 40Q What is nuclear fusion?

Problem 42Q Can nuclear fusion be used to generate electricity? What are the advantages of fusion over fission for electricity generation? What are the problems with fusion?

Problem 43Q How does radiation affect the molecules within living organisms?

Problem 45Q Explain how radiation can increase cancer risk.

Problem 44Q What is acute radiation damage to living organisms?

Problem 48Q Describe the outcomes of radiation exposure at different doses (in rem).

Problem 41Q Do modern nuclear weapons use fission, fusion, or both? Explain.

Problem 47Q What is the main unit of radiation exposure? How much radiation is the average U.S. resident exposed to per year?

Problem 51P Draw the symbol for the isotope of lead that contains 128 neutrons.

Problem 50Q How is radioactivity used to treat cancer?

Problem 52P Draw the symbol for the isotope of bismuth that contains 124 neutrons.

How many protons and neutrons are in this nuclide? \({ }_{81}^{207} T I\)

How many protons and neutrons are in this nuclide? \({ }_{86}^{219} \mathrm{Rn}\)

Identify the particle represented by each symbol as an alpha particle, a beta particle, a gamma ray, a positron, a neutron, or a proton. (a) \({ }_{-1}^{0} e\) (b) \({ }_{0}^{1} n\) (c) \({ }_{0}^{0} y\) Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: _-1^0 e _0^1n _0^0y

Identify the particle represented by each symbol as an alpha particle, a beta particle, a gamma ray, a positron, a neutron, or a proton. (a) \({ }_{1}^{1} P\) (b) \({ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) (c) \({ }_{+1}^{0} e\) Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: _1^1P _2^4He _+1^0e

Problem 57P Complete the table. Chemical Symbol Atomic Number (Z) Mass Number (A) # Protons # Neutrons Tc _____ 95 _____ _____ _____ 56 128 _____ _____ Eu _____ _____ _____ 82 Fr _____ _____ _____ 136

Complete the table. Chemical Symbol, Atomic Number, Mass Number, Protons, Neutrons

Problem 60P Write a nuclear equation for the alpha decay of each nuclide. (a) Po-218 (b) Po-214 (c) Po-210 (d) Th-227

Problem 62P Write a nuclear equation for the beta decay of each nuclide. (a) Pb-211 (b) Tl-207 (c) Th-234 (d) Pa-234

Problem 62P Write a nuclear equation for the beta decay of each nuclide. (a) Pb-211 (b) Tl-207 (c) Th-234 (d) Pa-234

Problem 63P Write a nuclear equation for positron emission by each nuclide. (a) C-11 (b) N-13 (c) O-15

Problem 64P Write a nuclear equation for positron emission by each nuclide. (a) Co-55 (b) Na-22 (c) F-18

Fill in the blanks in the partial decay series.

Fill in the blanks in the partial decay series.

Problem 67P Write a partial decay series for Th-232 undergoing these sequential decays. ?, ?, ? ?.

Problem 68P Write a partial decay series for Rn-220 undergoing these sequential decays. ?, ?, ? ?.

Problem 69P Suppose you a have a 100,000-atom sample of a radioactive nuclide that decays with a half-life of 2.0 days. How many radioactive atoms are left after 10 days?

Problem 71P A patient is given 0.050 mg of technetium-99m (where m means metastable—an unstable but long-lived state), a radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 6.0 hours. How long until the radioactive isotope decays to 6.3 × 10?3 mg?

Iodine-131 is often used in nuclear medicine to obtain images of the thyroid. If you start with \(4.0 \times 10^{10}\) I-131 atoms, how many are left after approximately 1 month? I-131 has a half-life of 8.0 days.

Problem 72P Radium-223 decays with a half-life of 11.4 days. How long does it take for a 0.240-mol sample of radium to decay to 1.50 × 10?2 mol?

Problem 74P One of the nuclides in spent nuclear fuel is U-235, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 703 million years. How long does it take for the amount of U-235 to reach one-eighth of its initial amount?

Problem 73P One of the nuclides in spent nuclear fuel is U-234, an alpha emitter with a half-life of 2.44 × 105 years. If a spent fuel assembly contains 2.80 kg of U-234, how long does it take for the amount of U-234 to decay to less than 0.10 kg?

Problem 75P A radioactive sample contains 2.45 g of an isotope with a half-life of 3.8 days. How much of the isotope in grams remains after 11.4 days?

Problem 76P A 68-mg sample of a radioactive nuclide is administered to a patient to obtain an image of her thyroid. If the nuclide has a half-life of 12 hours, how much of the nuclide remains in the patient after 4.0 days?

Problem 77P Each of the tabulated nuclides is used in nuclear medicine. List them in order of most active (largest number of decay events per second) to least active (smallest number of decay events per second). Nuclide Half-Life P-32 14.3 days Cr-51 27.7 days Ga-67 78.3 hours Sr-89 50.0 days

Problem 79P A wooden boat discovered just south of the Great Pyramid in Egypt had a carbon-14 content of approximately 50% of that found in living organisms. How old is the boat?

Problem 78P Each of the tabulated nuclides is used in nuclear medicine. List them in order of most active (largest number of decay events per second) to least active (smallest number of decay events per second). Nuclide Half-Life Y-90 64.1 hours Tc-99m 6.02 hours In-111 2.8 days I-131 8.0 days

Problem 80P A layer of peat buried beneath the glacial sediments from the last ice age had a carbon-14 content of 25% of that found in living organisms. How long ago was this ice age?

Problem 82P A mammoth skeleton has a carbon-14 content of 12.50% of that found in living organisms. When did the mammoth live?

Problem 81P An ancient skull has a carbon-14 content of 1.563% of that found in living organisms. How old is the skull?

Write the nuclear equation for the fusion of two H-2 atoms to form He-3 and one neutron.

Problem 83P Write the nuclear reaction for the neutron-induced fission of U-235 to form Xe-144 and Sr-90. How many neutrons are produced in the reaction?

Problem 84P Write the nuclear reaction for the neutron-induced fission of U-235 to produce Te-137 and Zr-97. How many neutrons are produced in the reaction?

Write the nuclear equation for the fusion of H-3 with H-l to form He-4.

Complete each nuclear equation.

Complete each nuclear equation.

Problem 89P A breeder nuclear reactor is a reactor in which U-238 (which does not undergo fission) is converted into Pu-239 (which does undergo fission). The process involves bombardment of U-238 by neutrons to form U-239, which undergoes two sequential beta decays. Write nuclear equations to represent this process.

Write a series of nuclear equations in which \(Al-27\) reacts with a neutron and the product undergoes an alpha decay followed by a beta decay. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: Al-27

Problem 91P The fission of U-235 produces 3.2 × 10?11J/atom. How much energy does it produce per mole of U-235? Per kilogram of U-235?

Problem 92P The fusion of deuterium and tritium produces 2.8 × 10?12 J for every atom of deuterium and atom of tritium. How much energy is produced per mole of deuterium and mole of tritium?

Problem 94P Po-218 is an alpha emitter with a half-life of 3.0 minutes. If a sample contains 55 mg of Po-218, how many alpha emissions occur in 6.0 minutes?

Problem 93P Bi-210 is a beta emitter with a half-life of 5.0 days. If a sample contains 1.2 g of Bi-210, how many beta emissions occur in 5.0 days?

Problem 95P If a person living in a high-radon area is exposed to 0.400 rem of radiation from radon per year, and his total exposure is 0.585 rem, what percentage of his total exposure is due to radon?

An X-ray technician is exposed to 0.020 rem of radiation at work. If her total exposure is the national average (0.36 rem), what fraction of her exposure is due to on-the-job exposure?

Radium-226 (atomic mass 226.03 amu) decays to radon-224, a radioactive gas. The half-life of radium-226 is \(1.6 \times 10^3\) years. If a 1.5-g sample of radium-226 decays for 45 days, what volume of radon gas (at \(25.0 ~^\circ \mathrm C\) and 1.0 atm) is produced?

Consider the fission reaction. \({ }_{92}^{235} \mathrm{U}+{ }_0^1 \mathrm{n} \longrightarrow{ }_{56}^{142} \mathrm{Ba}+{ }_{36}^{91} \mathrm{Kr}+3{ }_0^1 \mathrm{n}+\text { Energy }\) What mass of Kr-91 (atomic mass 92.93 amu) is produced by the complete fission of 15 g of U-235 (atomic mass 235.04 amu)?

Closely examine the diagram representing the alpha decay of sodium-\(20\) and draw the missing nucleus. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: 20

Closely examine the diagram representing the beta decay of fluorine-\(21\) and draw the missing nucleus. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: 21

Closely examine the diagram representing the positron emission of carbon-\(10\) and draw the missing nucleus. Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: 10

What happens to an atom when it emits a gamma ray?

How do the ionizing power and penetrating power of gamma particles compare to other types of radiation?

Problem 16Q What is positron emission? What is the symbol for a positron?

Problem 19Q What is a nuclear equation? What does it mean for a nuclear equation to be balanced?

Identify the parent nuclides and daughter nuclides in the nuclear equation. Which kind of radioactive decay is involved? \({ }_{91}^{231} \mathrm{~Pa} \rightarrow{ }_{89}^{227} \mathrm{~Pa}+{ }_{2}^{4} \mathrm{He}\) Equation Transcription: Text Transcription: _91^231Pa rightarrow _89^227Pa+_2^4He

What is a film-badge dosimeter, and how does it work?

Problem 28Q What is the source of carbon-14 in our environment? Why do all living organisms contain a uniform amount of carbon-14?

Problem 27Q What is the source of radon in our environment? Winy is radon problematic?

Problem 29Q What happens to the carbon-14 in a living organism when it dies? How can this be used to establish how long ago the organism died?

How do we know that carbon-14 (or radiocarbon) dating is accurate? What is the age limit for which carbon-14 dating is useful?

Explain Fermi's experiment in which he bombarded uranium with neutrons. Include a nuclear equation in your answer.

Problem 37Q Explain the purpose of the control rods in a nuclear reactor core. How do they work?

Problem 38Q What are the main advantages and problems associated with nuclear electricity generation?

Explain the medical use of isotope scanning.

Problem 26Q What is a radioactive decay series?

Problem 36Q How can nuclear fission be used to generate electricity?

Problem 46Q Explain how radiation can cause genetic defects. Has this ever been observed in laboratory animals? In humans?

Problem 61P Write a nuclear equation for the beta decay of each nuclide. (a) Pb-214 (b) Bi-214 (c) Th-231 (d) Ac-227

Problem 32Q What is nuclear fission? How and by whom was it discovered?